The "Black Death" is the most terrible epidemic known in history, which spread in Europe in the period 1347-1351. It is generally accepted that this was an outbreak of bubonic and pneumonic plague. For more than three centuries, the disease again and again came to the European continent, however, later epidemics were no longer so devastating.
In ancient times, the word "plague" ("pestis" in Latin, "loimos" in Greek) meant any epidemic in general, a disease that is accompanied by fever or fever. For example, the "plague" that struck Athens at the start of the Peloponnesian War and killed Pericles was, according to the description of the historian Thucydides, typhoid fever.
In the VI century. in Europe there was an epidemic of a disease called the plague, the so-called Plague of Justinian. Local outbreaks were sometimes observed in different countries. But in 1346-1347. on the territory including the lower reaches of the Volga, the Northern Caspian, the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Crimea, the Eastern spurs of the Carpathians, the Black Sea, the Near and Middle East, Asia Minor, the Balkans, Sicily, Rhodes, Cyprus, Malta, Sardinia, Corsica, North Africa, south of the Iberian peninsula, the mouth of the Rhone, the activation of natural foci of the plague began.
It was believed that the beginning of the epidemic of the XIV century. put the siege of the Genoese fortress of Kafa (modern Feodosia) in the Crimea by Khan Dzhanibek. The disease struck the besiegers, and then they began to throw the corpses of the dead into the city with catapules. In fact, as researchers now think, the episode with the siege of Kafa could not have greatly influenced the spread of the disease. By that time, the plague was already raging in Asia, and the merchants of the Great Silk Road inevitably spread it throughout the vast continent. Already in May 1347 in Paris they knew about the epidemic in the countries of Asia and Eastern Europe. Terrible and unexpected were many symptoms of the disease. With bubonic plague, patients developed tumors in the lymph nodes - buboes, with a pulmonary form, hemoptysis began. All this was supplemented by a rash, nausea, vomiting, fever. And if a person who fell ill with the bubonic form could recover, then everyone died from the pneumonic plague.
The Genoese, who managed to escape to the West, spread the plague throughout Europe. In 1347, the epidemic swept through Constantinople, Greece, Sicily and Dalmatia. In June 1348 it spread to France and Spain, and in the fall to England and Ireland. In 1349, the disease swept through Germany, Scandinavia, Iceland and even Greenland. In 1352, the epidemic came to Russia. In total, at least 25 million Europeans have died over the years. People then considered the cause of the plague harmful fumes, miasma, spoiled air. However, they also understood the danger of infection, so quarantines were arranged.
But the disease did not stop the development of European civilization. The old states have survived, the old conflicts have continued. In the most terrible years, Petrarch traveled around Italy, dreaming of the return of the ancient heritage and becoming the forerunner of the Renaissance, and Boccaccio wrote his Decameron, imbued with the ideas of humanism and the pursuit of love and happiness.
What could have caused this epidemic? Expansion of the steppe zone, and, consequently, the resettlement of rodents - carriers of the disease? Indeed, in Russia the first years of the XIV century were dry, in 1308 an invasion of rodents was observed everywhere, accompanied by pestilence and famine. But the Black Death came forty years later, and in the last years before the epidemic, the weather in southern Europe was warm and damp. Frequent floods, snowy winters, rainy summer months - the steppe could not grow in such conditions.
Most of the reports of plague involving the lungs concerned the northern countries (England, Norway, Russia). And, probably, during the Black Death pandemic, secondary pneumonic plague prevailed, developing as a complication of bubonic plague.
But the bubonic plague does not go beyond its natural foci, it does not spread in the North, it could not cover the whole of Europe so quickly. In 1997, the Nobel Prize winner in biochemistry, J. Lederberg, suggested that the clinical picture of the disease that had spread then was “tailored” to the plague clinic. The monstrous mortality of the population of Europe during the first epidemics of the Black Death was not characteristic of any of the subsequent epidemics. Lederberg doubts that the Black Death is the plague. There is also a hypothesis that some other factors influenced human susceptibility to the plague. They even call AIDS, but it is worth remembering that since the 11th century leprosy and smallpox have become more active in Europe.
Epidemics continued into the next century, but pneumonic plague was replaced by a less dangerous bubonic form of the disease.
The last outbreaks in Western Europe occurred in England in 1665, Vienna in 1683. In London, the epidemic ended with the “great fire” of 1666. The city center was rebuilt, and Londoners believed that this was why the city no longer suffered from the plague. But the fire left intact the overcrowded suburbs that had been hotbeds of the plague in earlier years. Subsequent outbreaks of the disease occurred farther and farther from the center of Europe. It almost looked as if the European countries were developing some form of defense that kept the infection at bay. In the north, the plague retreated east; in the Mediterranean, it went south. And each time, the areas where the disease spread became smaller and smaller, although people traveled more and more.
In the XVIII century. in Europe, black rats - carriers of the plague were replaced by gray rats. Perhaps this is what led to the attenuation of epidemics. But in the XVIII century. gray rats advanced into Europe from east to west, and the plague receded from west to east. Maybe the black rats developed a resistance to the plague and spread to their entire population. But this is unlikely. Perhaps a new strain of plague bacteria had emerged that proved to be less contagious and dangerous than the earlier one. It is possible that some pathogens worked as vaccines, causing relative immunity in animals and humans to a more dangerous strain of these bacteria.
Or, most likely, some sort of natural selection took place, people who were immune to the plague survived and passed this property on to their descendants. In any case, the search for a clue to the "black death" can lead to many interesting discoveries in medicine and help people fight infectious diseases.
The Black Death is a disease that is now legendary. In fact, this is the name of the plague epidemic that struck Europe, Asia, North Africa and even Greenland in the 14th century. The pathology proceeded mainly in the bubonic form. The territorial focus of the disease has become. Many people know where this place is located. Gobi belongs to Eurasia. The Black Sea arose precisely there because of the Little Ice Age that occurred, which served as the impetus for a sharp and dangerous climate change.
It took the lives of 60 million people. At the same time, in some regions the number of deaths reached two-thirds of the population. Due to the unpredictability of the disease, as well as the impossibility at that time to cure it, religious ideas began to flourish among people. Belief in a higher power has become commonplace. At the same time, the persecution of the so-called "poisoners", "witches", "sorcerers" began, which, according to religious fanatics, sent an epidemic to people.
This period has remained in history as a time of impatient people who were struck by fear, hatred, mistrust and numerous superstitions. In fact, there is, of course, a scientific explanation for the outbreak of bubonic plague.
The myth of the bubonic plague
When historians were looking for ways to spread the disease to Europe, they settled on the opinion that the plague appeared in Tatarstan. More precisely, it was brought by the Tatars.
In 1348, led by Khan Dzhanybek, during the siege of the Genoese fortress of Kafa (Feodosia), the corpses of people who had previously died from the plague were thrown there. After the liberation, the Europeans began to leave the city, spreading the disease throughout Europe.
But the so-called "plague in Tatarstan" turned out to be nothing more than the speculation of people who do not know how to explain the sudden and deadly outbreak of the "black death".
The theory was defeated as it became known that the pandemic is not transmitted between people. It could be infected from small rodents or insects.
Such a "general" theory existed for quite a long time and contained many mysteries. In fact, the plague epidemic, as it turned out later, began for several reasons.
Natural causes of the pandemic
In addition to dramatic climate change in Eurasia, the bubonic plague outbreak was preceded by several other environmental factors. Among them:
- global drought in China followed by massive famine;
- in Henan mass ;
- rains and hurricanes dominated Beijing for a long time.
Like the "Plague of Justinian", as the first pandemic in history is called, the "Black Death" overtook people after massive natural disasters. She even went the same way as her predecessor.
The decrease in the immunity of people, provoked by an environmental factor, has led to a massive incidence. The catastrophe reached such proportions that the heads of the churches had to open rooms for the sick population.
The plague in the Middle Ages also had socio-economic prerequisites.
Socio-economic causes of bubonic plague
Natural factors could not provoke such a serious outbreak on their own. They were supported by the following socio-economic prerequisites:
- military operations in France, Spain, Italy;
- the domination of the Mongol-Tatar yoke over part of Eastern Europe;
- increased trade;
- rapidly growing poverty;
- too high population density.
Another important factor that provoked the invasion of the plague was the belief, which meant that healthy believers should wash as little as possible. According to the saints of that time, the contemplation of one's own naked body leads a person into temptation. Some followers of the church were so imbued with this opinion that they never immersed themselves in water even once in their entire conscious life.
Europe in the 14th century was not considered a pure power. The population did not follow the disposal of garbage. Waste was thrown directly from the windows, slops and the contents of chamber pots were poured onto the road, and the blood of livestock flowed there. All this later ended up in the river, from which people took water for cooking and even drinking.
Like the Plague of Justinian, the Black Death was caused by large numbers of rodents that lived in close contact with humans. In the literature of that time, you can find many entries on what to do in the event of an animal bite. As you know, rats and marmots are carriers of the disease, so people were terribly afraid of even one of their species. In an effort to overcome rodents, many have forgotten about everything, including their family.
How it all began
The point of origin of the disease was the Gobi desert. Where is the place, which was the immediate focus, is unknown. It is assumed that the Tatars who lived nearby declared a hunt for marmots, which are carriers of the plague. The meat and fur of these animals were highly valued. Under such conditions, infection was inevitable.
Many rodents, due to drought and other negative weather conditions, left their shelters and moved closer to people, where more food could be found.
Hebei Province in China was the first to be hit. At least 90% of the population died there. This is another reason that gave rise to the opinion that the Tatars provoked the outbreak of the plague. They could lead the disease along the well-known Silk Road.
Then the plague reached India, after which it moved to Europe. Surprisingly, only one source of that time mentions the true nature of the disease. It is believed that people were struck by the bubonic form of the plague.
In countries that were not affected by the pandemic, real panic arose in the Middle Ages. The heads of state sent messengers for information about the disease and forced specialists to invent a cure for it. The population of some states, remaining in the dark, willingly believed the rumors that snakes were raining on the infected lands, a fiery wind was blowing, and acid balls were falling from the sky.
Low temperatures, a long stay outside the host's body, thawing cannot destroy the Black Death pathogen. But against it, solar exposure and drying are effective.
Bubonic plague begins to develop from the moment you are bitten by an infected flea. Bacteria enter the lymph nodes and begin their vital activity. Suddenly, a person is overcome by chills, his body temperature rises, the headache becomes unbearable, and facial features become unrecognizable, black spots appear under the eyes. On the second day after infection, the bubo itself appears. This is the name of the enlarged lymph node.
A person infected with the plague can be identified immediately. "Black Death" is a disease that changes the face and body beyond recognition. Blisters become noticeable already on the second day, and the general condition of the patient cannot be called adequate.
The symptoms of plague in a person of the Middle Ages are surprisingly different from those of a modern patient.
Clinical picture of the bubonic plague of the Middle Ages
"Black Death" is a disease that in the Middle Ages was identified by such signs:
- severe fever, chills;
- aggressiveness;
- continuous feeling of fear;
- severe pain in the chest;
- dyspnea;
- cough with bloody secretions;
- blood and waste products became black;
- a dark coating could be seen on the tongue;
- ulcers and buboes arising on the body exuded an unpleasant odor;
- clouding of consciousness.
These symptoms were seen as a sign of imminent and imminent death. If a person received such a sentence, he already knew that he had very little time left. No one tried to deal with such symptoms, they were considered the will of God and the church.
Treatment of bubonic plague in the Middle Ages
Medieval medicine was far from ideal. The doctor who came to see the patient paid more attention to talking about whether he confessed than to the treatment itself. This was due to the religious insanity of the population. The salvation of the soul was considered a much more important task than the healing of the body. Accordingly, surgical intervention was practically not practiced.
The methods of treating plague were as follows:
- cutting tumors and cauterizing them with a red-hot iron;
- use of antidotes;
- applying reptile skin to buboes;
- pulling out the disease with the help of magnets.
At the same time, medieval medicine was not hopeless. Some doctors of that time advised patients to eat well and wait until the body copes with the plague on its own. This is the most adequate theory of treatment. Of course, in the conditions of that time, cases of recovery were isolated, but still they took place.
Only mediocre doctors or young people who wanted to gain fame in an extremely risky way were taken for the treatment of the disease. They wore a mask that looked like a bird's head with a pronounced beak. However, such protection did not save everyone, so many doctors died after their patients.
The authorities of the powers advised people to adhere to the following methods of dealing with the epidemic:
- Escape for a long distance. At the same time, it was necessary to overcome as many kilometers as possible very quickly. It was necessary to stay at a safe distance from the disease as long as possible.
- Through the infected places to drive herds of horses. It was believed that the breath of these animals purifies the air. For the same purpose, it was advised to let various insects into the houses. In a room where a person recently died of the plague, a saucer of milk was placed, because it was believed that it absorbs the disease. Also popular were methods such as breeding spiders in the house and burning a large number of fires near the living quarters.
- Do whatever is necessary to kill the smell of the plague. It was believed that if a person does not feel the stench coming from infected people, he is sufficiently protected. That is why many carried bouquets of flowers with them.
Doctors also advised not to sleep after dawn, not to have an intimate relationship and not to think about the epidemic and death. Today, this approach seems crazy, but in the Middle Ages, people found solace in it.
Of course, religion was an important factor influencing life during the epidemic.
Religion during the bubonic plague
"Black Death" is a disease that frightened people with its obscurity. Therefore, against this background, various religious beliefs arose:
- Plague is a punishment for ordinary human sins, disobedience, bad attitude towards loved ones, the desire to succumb to temptations.
- The plague arose as a result of the neglect of faith.
- The epidemic began due to the fact that shoes with pointed toes came into fashion, which greatly angered God.
Priests who were obliged to listen to the confessions of dying people often became infected and died. Therefore, often the cities were left without church ministers, because they were afraid for their lives.
Against the backdrop of a tense situation, various groups or sects appeared, each of which in its own way explained the cause of the epidemic. In addition, various superstitions were widespread among the population, which were considered pure truth.
Superstitions during the bubonic plague
In any, even the most insignificant event, during the epidemic, people saw peculiar signs of fate. Some superstitions were quite surprising:
- If a completely naked woman plows the land around the house, and the rest of the family at this time will be indoors, the plague will leave nearby places.
- If you make a scarecrow symbolizing the plague and burn it, the disease will recede.
- To prevent the disease from attacking, you need to carry silver or mercury with you.
Many legends were formed around the image of the plague. People really believed in them. They were afraid to once again open the door of their house, so as not to let the plague spirit inside. Even native people swore among themselves, each sought to save himself and only himself.
The situation in society
Oppressed and frightened people over time came to the conclusion that the plague was spread by the so-called outcasts who wished the death of the entire population. The pursuit of the suspects began. They were forcibly dragged to the infirmary. Many of the people identified as suspects have committed suicide. A suicide epidemic has hit Europe. The problem has reached such proportions that the authorities have threatened those who commit suicide to put their corpses on public display.
Since many people were sure that they had very little time left to live, they indulged in all serious things: they were addicted to alcohol, they were looking for entertainment with women of easy virtue. This lifestyle further intensified the epidemic.
The pandemic has reached such proportions that the corpses were taken out at night, dumping them in special pits and burying them.
Sometimes it happened that plague patients appeared in society on purpose, trying to infect as many enemies as possible. It was also due to the fact that it was believed that the plague would recede if it was passed on to another.
In the atmosphere of that time, any person who, by any sign, stood out from the crowd, could be considered a poisoner.
Consequences of the Black Death
The Black Death had significant consequences in all spheres of life. The most significant of them:
- The ratio of blood groups has changed significantly.
- Instability in the political sphere of life.
- Many villages were deserted.
- The beginning of feudal relations was laid. Many people in whose workshops their sons worked were forced to hire outside craftsmen.
- Since there were not enough male labor resources to work in the production sector, women began to master this type of activity.
- Medicine has moved to a new stage of development. All sorts of diseases began to be studied and cures for them were invented.
- The servants and the lower strata of the population, due to the lack of people, began to demand a better position for themselves. Many insolvent people turned out to be heirs of rich deceased relatives.
- Attempts were made to mechanize production.
- Housing and rent prices have dropped significantly.
- The self-consciousness of the population, which did not want to blindly obey the government, grew at a tremendous pace. This resulted in various riots and revolutions.
- Significantly weakened the influence of the church on the population. People saw the helplessness of the priests in the fight against the plague, they stopped trusting them. Rituals and beliefs previously forbidden by the church came into use again. The age of "witches" and "sorcerers" began. The number of priests has dropped significantly. These positions were often filled with people who were uneducated and unsuitable for their age. Many did not understand why death takes away not only criminals, but also good, kind people. In this regard, Europe doubted the power of God.
- After such a large-scale pandemic, the plague did not completely leave the population. Periodically, epidemics broke out in different cities, taking the lives of people with them.
Today, many researchers doubt that the second pandemic proceeded precisely in the form of bubonic plague.
Opinions on the second pandemic
There are doubts that the "black death" is a synonym for the period of prosperity of the bubonic plague. There are explanations for this:
- Plague patients rarely reported symptoms such as fever and sore throat. However, modern scholars note that there are many errors in the narratives of that time. Moreover, some works are fictional and contradict not only other stories, but also themselves.
- The third pandemic was able to defeat only 3% of the population, while the "black death" mowed down at least a third of Europe. But this also has an explanation. During the second pandemic, terrible unsanitary conditions were observed, causing more problems than illness.
- The buboes arising from the defeat of a person were located under the armpits and in the neck. It would be logical if they appeared on the legs, since it is there that the flea is easiest to get. However, this fact is not perfect either. It turns out that along with the spreader of the plague is a human louse. And there were many such insects in the Middle Ages.
- Usually epidemics are preceded by a mass death of rats. This phenomenon was not observed in the Middle Ages. This fact can also be disputed, given the presence of human lice.
- The flea, which is the carrier of the disease, feels best in warm and humid climates. The pandemic flourished even in the coldest winters.
- The spread of the epidemic was at a record high.
As a result of the research, it was found that the genome of modern plague strains is identical to the disease of the Middle Ages, which proves that it was the bubonic form of the pathology that became the "black death" for people of that time. Therefore, any other opinions are automatically moved to the wrong category. But a more detailed study of the issue is still ongoing.
Plague wand (lat. Yersinia pestis) was identified (precisely as plague) only in 1894. In the 19th century, the term "plague" itself appeared. Prior to that, the terms “pestilence”, “pestilence”, “pestilence”, “disgust”, “black death”, as well as “pest” and “plague” were used, which most often means not a plague, but rather an execution or disaster . And many scientists seriously doubt that the current plague wand is related to the medieval "plague".
Below are abundantly retold excerpts from the book "Essays on the History of the Plague", the authors: Supotnitsky Mikhail Vasilyevich, Supotnitskaya Nadezhda Semyonovna.
Doubts of scientists
Nobel Prize winner in biochemistry J. Lederberg (Lederberg J., 1997) drew attention to the monstrous mortality of the population of Europe (40% in Marseille, 70% in Toulon, 90% in Revel) during the epidemics of the "black death", not characteristic of any of the plague epidemics.
Moreover, the bodies of people who died from the "black death" quickly turned black and looked as if "charred". This is possible if the death of people was preceded by the massive development of hemorrhages, however, such a non-specific reaction depends on the presence of a specific allele (TNF2) in the human genome. This allele is the result of a mutation in the TNF-a gene, and individuals homozygous for it make up about 5% of the population. Not 90% like in Reval, not 70% like in Toulon, and not even 40% like in Marseille.
Plague wand ( Yersinia pestis) does not synthesize true exotoxins at all, which are capable of causing the main symptoms of the "black death".
Judge for yourself, the incubation period of bubonic plague lasts 3-6 days, with a pulmonary (very rare) form - 1-2 days. Body temperature rises to 39°C or more. There are chills, severe headache, dizziness, a feeling of weakness, muscle pain, and sometimes vomiting. All symptoms are clear and unambiguous. However, in the Middle Ages, the beginning of the Black Death epidemic was not noticed; she came to attention only after a sudden outbreak of deaths. So, in Avignon in January 1348, the plague was discovered only after all the monks of the local monastery (about 700 people) died in one (!) Night. The same thing happened in Baghdad: people died a few hours (!) after the onset of the disease.
Here is an interesting drawing - rather naive, but no less valuable for that. Plague arrows are sent from above, along with poisonous rain from the hands of the deity. And - importantly - the people in the picture, as, indeed, in most images, died at the same time.
And here is the plague in Marseille in 1720. Those who are dying have certainly been well recently; they had the strength to go out into the street, it was here that death found them. As they wrote about the Black Death in the Baltics: "People fall when they walk." Not in bed, where the plague bacillus usually drives, but on the go.
eyewitness accounts
The most famous plague epidemic befell civilization in the middle of the 14th century; in general, this worldwide cataclysm (in my database of catastrophes it is No. 72) contains about 50 major disasters and the main signs of a “volcanic winter” repeated many times:
- unprecedented frosts;
- earthquakes on a pan-European scale;
- mass destruction of fleets;
- heavy rains and crop failure;
- hurricanes and floods;
- famine and high mortality;
- droughts and the Great Fires;
- electrical atmospheric phenomena;
- mass psychosis, waiting for the end of the world.
At the same time, the Black Death itself is developing, and it is immediately clear that deeds that are categorically not characteristic of it have been attributed to the plague wand.
Manifestations of the Black Death
1348. A strong wind blew, which spread decay throughout the country. The stench and stench soon reached the most remote areas, spreading through their cities and tents. If this smell was inhaled by a person or an animal, after a while they would surely die.
It was in this way that, brought by "an unclean gust of wind from the south," the execution flooded Europe, and this view of the plague lasted until the second half of the 19th century. Here is a picture with the author's explanation that it depicts not just a "plague", one of the Egyptian executions, namely the Black Death, the plague.
And this, too, is the Black Death.
1348. There was a heavy downpour in the country of the Kara-Khitays. Together with the rain streams, the deadly infection spread further, bringing with it the death of all living things. After this rain, horses and cattle died. Then people, poultry and wild animals began to die.
This is how the "plague downpour" was portrayed - until the end of the 19th century.
1348. At the beginning of 1348, the plague swept the district of Aleppo, gradually spreading throughout Syria. All the inhabitants of the valleys perished.
1348. The plague spread throughout the east: in the country of Khan Uzbek, the lands of Istanbul and Kaysariyya. From there it spread to Antioch and destroyed its inhabitants. Some of them, fleeing death, fled to the mountains, but almost all of them died on the way.
1348. The Arabs of the desert and the inhabitants of the mountains and plains perished. In the cities of Ludd and Ramla, almost everyone died. Inns, taverns and teahouses were filled with dead bodies.
1348. All Africa was filled with dead people and the corpses of innumerable herds of cattle and animals. If a sheep was slaughtered, then its meat turned out to be blackened and fetid. The smell of other products - milk and butter - has also changed.
1348. Every day up to 20,000 people died in Egypt, almost all the peasants died. There were so many corpses on the roads that, having become infected from them, the trees began to rot.
1348. "In the east, near Greater India, fire and stinking smoke burned all the cities," "between China and Persia a heavy rain of fire fell, falling in flakes like snow, and burning mountains and valleys with all the inhabitants," and accompanied by an ominous black cloud, which "whoever saw it died within half a day."
This is how the plague hail was drawn. Pay attention to the nature of the precipitation.
1348. Death spread to the cities of Damanhur, Garuja and others, in which the entire population and all livestock perished. Fishing on Lake Baralas stopped due to the death of fishermen, who often died with a fishing rod in their hands. Even on the eggs of the caught fish, dead places were found.
1348. The plague engulfed all living things. Even marine life, birds of the air and wild beasts.
1348. More than 22,000 people died in Gazza in one April day alone. Death swept through all the settlements around Gazza, and this happened shortly after the end of the spring plowing of the lands. People were dying right in the field behind the plow, holding baskets of grain in their hands. Together with them, all the working cattle died.
It is absolutely clear that the Black Death, which killed people behind a plow, in the saddle, with a fishing rod or bowl in their hands - often painlessly and instantly - is not a plague wand. Moreover, along with a person, cattle, wild animals, birds, fish, sea creatures and even trees died at the same time. Below is a characteristic medieval picture, and the same thing is shown here: the black death kills everyone.
And now - statistics. In the chronicles from 64 to 1885, I have 196 epidemic years and 177 "volcanogenic" years. Rigid connections of both are observed in 40% of cases. This is an extremely high proportion. Spreading the list in full is unthinkable, so I will give only a tiny part of it.
79 year. Volcano Vesuvius. Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia perished.
79 year. Plague in Rome.
651 (L. M. 6144, R. H. 644). Dust fell from the sky and people came into great fear.
654 year. Plague in North Africa, Europe, Central and South Asia and Arabia.
1031 year. The sun darkened... and the devil was freed from the shackles of Christ's crucifixion.
1031 year. One of the first descriptions of cholera in India.
1158 year. Iceland, HEKLA volcano.
1158 year. Pestilence in Novgorod.
1210-1211 Iceland, volcanoes KATLA, REYKJANES.
1212 year. Epidemic in Estonia and Livonia
1333. Eruption of Etna, strong earthquakes in the Himalayas.
1333. Plague in Europe, Epidemics with horrendous mortality in India.
1416. Iceland, Katla volcano.
1417-1418 Pestilence in Russia and France.
1597. Iceland, HEKLA volcano.
1598. Plague in Spain.
1650. Volcano SANTORINI.
1650. The plague reduced the population of Barcelona by half.
1707. Eruption of Santorini and Fuji.
1709-1711 Pestilence in Kiev and throughout Europe.
A clear connection between eruptions and plague is seen even in the frequency of the use of these two words in the English-language press from 1710 to 1840. The same connection is seen in French sources.
This connection lasts until the middle of the 19th century; scientists are well aware of it and even think that volcanic aerosols contribute to the reproduction of certain harmful bacteria. However, all chronicle epidemics of the "plague" are strictly divided into two categories: those that can be blocked by quarantine, and those that cannot. And it was these second ones that set the tone until the 18th century.
And there is an extremely clear connection between the plague and the Great Fires. First the chart:
And now - absolutely truthful images of eyewitnesses. Here is the plague in the image of Brueghel. The main character here is fires.
And in this picture is depicted in a literal translation of the "Great Plague of London of 1665."
It's time to remember the combination "Peshtigo Horror", which refers to the ENTIRE series of North American fires of 1871. The fact is that Pest, Pesht - in half of European languages - literally means "Black Death", it is also "pestilence", "pestilence" and "disguise". It is highly doubtful that the townspeople would give such a name to their city. Most likely, we have before us evidence of an administrative forgery: attempts to hide the eloquent diagnosis of Pesht in the name of an obscure town. And it came out as clumsily as an attempt to blame the mystical Chicago fire on Mrs. O'Leary's cow, which hit a kerosene lamp with a hoof.
And yet, the Black Death is not fire. The vast majority of the Great Fires are characterized by a record low death rate from fire. People died not from fire and not even from smoke, but from what accompanies this - from the invisible Black Death. Here, for example, is the Black Death in Moscow in 1771. There is very little fire here, and people are in a panic.
Identification of the Black Death
What is the plague in fact, doctors described back in 1348. Here are quotations from the verdict of the Paris Medical Faculty (Documents inedits sur la grand peste de 1348. Paris, Londres et New-York, 1860). If you do not pay attention to the alchemical surroundings, the verdict looks extremely reliable.
"... in India and in the countries of the Great Sea, the celestial bodies, which are struggling with the rays of the sun and with the heat of the heavenly fires, have ... influence on this sea ..."Note: I believe that the luminaries mean red-hot fireballs falling into the sea, like the one depicted in the Russian Bible. Or, alternatively, volcanic bombs.
“From this, vapors are born that darken the sun ...Note: we have a fairly accurate description of the consequences of the eruption (rain of fire, flakes like snow) and the action of clouds of volcanic gases (sulfur dioxide, fluorine, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia). Moreover, the mass character and the speed of the onset of deaths only adds to the realism. So, in 1902, during the eruption of the Mount Pele volcano on the island of Martinique, gases that covered an area with a radius of 10 km killed about 30 thousand people at once. And 10 km for a gas cloud is far from the limit.
... the sun and fire act so strongly on the sea that they draw out most of the waters from it and turn these waters into vapors that rise into the air, and if this happens in countries where the waters are spoiled by dead fish, then such rotten water does not it can neither be absorbed by the warmth of the sun, nor turn into healthy water, hail, snow or frost; these fumes, diffused in the air, cover with fog many countries. Similar things ... happened in Arabia, in India, in the plains and valleys of Macedonia, in Albania, Hungary, Sicily and Sardinia, where not a single person was left alive; the same will be in all the lands on which the air, plagued by the Indian Sea, will blow ... "
Let's evaluate this version - at least in general terms.
Routes of the Black Death
Merchants are often blamed for the spread of the Black Death, but here is a standard map showing the order of the onset of the "plague". The main thing that is clearly visible here is that the plague does not follow trade routes; it ignores the Southern Canal in France, the Danube, the Rhine, the Dnieper. Whether it was a plague bacillus, the speed of its advance on transcontinental transport routes was hundreds of times faster than in the outback. However, the Black Death immediately covers entire areas - from the southwest to the northeast, completely ignoring the movement of people and goods - with river corridors from the southeast to the northwest. Plague and merchants move at right angles to each other.
In fact, the epicenter of the "epidemic" is the island of Sicily, known for its volcanic activity; there, judging by the verdict of the doctors of Paris, the whole population died, entirely.
However, a good candidate and the volcano of Santorini. The tephra dispersion map (ash plumes) indicates a shift of the plumes exactly in the direction of Sicily. In fact, we have before us the very beginning of the lines of the first stage of the expansion of the plague.
The fact that this Santorini eruption is dated 25,000 years BC does not mean anything. The carbon-14 dating scale is so fantastic that the remains of the Nubians who smoked and consumed cocaine during their lifetime were attributed to three thousand years in the past. The version of the Santorini volcano, as the culprit of a whole chain of catastrophic events, is extremely good, since several main signs of a volcanic winter are visible in this area.
Here is the angelic army, under the leadership of the Mother of God, the fleet of the Saracens destroyed in the battle of Lepanto (this is just in the coverage area). There are many images of this battle in 1571, including in the form of stucco on temples. Here, at the military council at the Mother of God, the angels are hotly discussing the plan of the upcoming business.
And here the battle has already begun, and Mary with a sword in front, and soon angels armed with shining swords, will recklessly cut the throats of Venice's main commercial competitors. There are many such images.
How this happened in reality can be understood by retreating from this date into the past by 854 years (this is almost the exact difference between the scales from the Creation of the World according to Augustine and the Samaritan scale). Everything is described there honestly.
717 the Saracens moved in shame; when they retreated, a storm from God, through the intercession of the Mother of God, overtook their fleet and scattered it: it sank some at Procopis and other islands, others at whirlpools and rocky shores; the rest sailed through the Aegean Sea, and suddenly the terrible wrath of God overtook them: the fiery hail falling on them brought the whole sea to a boil, and when the pitch on the ships melted, they and the people sank to the bottom of the sea.
Isn't it the same as in this picture of the eruption of Santorini, was the said "hail of fire"?
And there is one more evidence in favor of the volcanic nature of the miracle at Lepanto. So, on September 21, 1571, 16 days before the fall of the fiery hail, “a huge and shining flame in the form of a column began to rage in the air.” Well, the pillar of fire from Santorini could be seen for many hundreds of kilometers, and just two years after the Battle of Lepanto, in 1573, another eruption of Santorini took place. This event is infrequent, and it is easier to assume that the chronologists were wrong by two years than the accident of this "coincidence".
It is also important that the victory at Lepanto did not lead to political consequences - in general, but the alignment of forces remained the same. There is no clear explanation of how the Christians managed to destroy the ENTIRE Ottoman fleet. On Turkish sites (there Lepanto is written as Inebahti) there are no details either. Only the number of dead Turkish sailors is known - 140 thousand. The fleet had to be created anew - entirely, and people were trained from scratch, that is, EVERYONE really died. Turkish drawings are also of interest. Arrows are visible, but they are the most common, not incendiary. At the same time, there are a lot of spots of fire on the ships - in the most unexpected places. Cannons on ships and rifles are not visible from the shooters. The bodies falling from above do not look like cannonballs, since many of them are not round, although the design as a whole is executed in the highest degree.
Europe does not have to go far for the Black Death: in Italy alone there are four most dangerous volcanoes: Etna, Vesuvius, Vulcano and Stromboli. And there is the same Santorini. And there is also Iceland stuffed with volcanoes. Today, scientists believe that two "epidemics" of death in Britain in 1783 and 1784 were the result of the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Laki. In eight months, Laki (not the largest volcano) released about 122 megatons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, and some of this gas reached the shores of mainland Europe.
It is worth remembering the discovery of scientists made during the observation of an ordinary eruption of the Pinatubo volcano (Philippines, 1991). The resulting ash column rotated, struck with lightning and generally behaved like a standard cyclone. And the cyclone can, without losing its contents, move almost anywhere, and throw out everything that it carries in itself, where it pleases.
Aerosols and rain
It is also important that volcanic gases lead to the formation of extremely poisonous aerosols and acid rain, and therefore it is clear that the Parisian doctors instructed people quite professionally: “Beware of cold, dampness, rain, do not boil anything in rainwater ... especially for those who live on the shores of the sea or on islands upon which a disastrous wind has blown.
Here is a description of the typical action of volcanic aerosols (Byzantine Theophanes, sheet 5854, 354, corrected for the modern scale of 361 or 362).
“The sign of the cross itself was imprinted on the opening of the altar covers, on church books, vestments and clothes not only of Christians, but even of Jews, and moreover, not only in Jerusalem, but also in Antioch and other cities. Thus, those of the Jews and Greeks who had the audacity not to believe saw many crosses on their dresses. Some of these crosses were black."Let me explain: volcanic gases, when combined with atmospheric moisture, form about six to seven acids - from nitric to hydrofluoric. It is clear that when a drop of acid condensate sits on a fabric, it is absorbed by the longitudinal and transverse fibers and spreads along them - crosswise. The change in the color of the fabric color depends on the chemical reaction of this acid with the dye, but simple charring of the fibers is also possible - just as strictly crosswise.
And here is a typical acid rain that kills vegetation and dissolves limestone, dated (Mkhitar Ayrivank) to 841: “For three nights, fire appeared. It began to rain, which stripped the bark from the trees and brought down the stones.
This is also indicated by the word "plague"
Here is a whole series of similar names for the black death.
Pla - Welsh
plaag - Afrikaans
plaga - Icelandic, Spanish, Catalan, Polish
plague - Irish, Slovenian, English
pllakos - Albanian
What this word meant in its origins is easy to trace, especially if you remember that the medieval pestilence is closely associated with the signs of a “volcanic winter”: acid rains and fogs and precipitation from hydrogen fluoride ash.
Rain:
La pluja - Catalan
ploaie - Romanian
la pluie - French
Drizzle:
Plugim - Catalan
At the same time, the word "maras" (almost Russian "drizzle") in the Lithuanian language is the same plague.
And here is a clear connection with the word "beach", meaning not a place for swimming at all, but (like the word "ples") precipitation of small particles.
Beach:
plage - French
plaj - Turkish
plaja - Romanian
platja - Catalan
playa - spanish
It is important that the Catalan name of the beach "platja" echoes the Russian "dress", that is, cover. The Macedonian “pokrov” means a shroud, and the Lithuanian word “pelenai” means “ashes”. How can one not recall peplos (ancient Greek) and peplum (lat.) - literally, “cloak, cover”? We are definitely dealing with a closely related circle of concepts.
It is also worth seeing that the plague in Galician and Portuguese (“praga”) has something in common with the word “dust” common to the Slavic languages. And "beach" in the same languages looks like "praia". That is, the black death in languages has connections precisely with the signs of a “volcanic winter”: drizzle, rain and COVER from dust or ashes.
The topic of this article is very broad and ambiguous. This phenomenon can certainly become the main competitor of the Second World War for the title of the most effective cleaner of the human gene pool in history. So, the plague.
First, it is necessary to say about the general clinic of the plague. For some reason, it is still extremely common that plague is only transmitted through the bites of infected fleas. But in general, this applies only to the local form of the plague, and inflammatory or septic is also transmitted by airborne droplets and contact.
How did the plague
The plague originated in the Gobi desert in the remote steppes of Kazakhstan, essentially by chance. The plague virus penetrated from unicellular organisms into the soil and plants, and from there inevitably into the steppe rodents. The first plague pandemic began in the second half of the 6th century and was named after the greatest ruler of his time, who died from it - the Justinian plague. It began in Byzantine Egypt. Historical sources claim that it claimed about 100 million people throughout the empire and about 25 million people in Europe. In general, this epidemic reached Britain itself. On this account, there is an assumption that she was one of the factors that facilitated the conquest of England by the Saxons. In addition, the plague of Justinian was one of the reasons why Byzantium had to stop its conquests in the east.
Around the same time, the Christian church celebrates the final victory over common sense. The fact is that before the split of the church, the so-called Ecumenical Councils took place, something like the modern G20 congress. Basically, they solved subtle issues regarding church law. Just then, all sorts of prohibitions appeared on normal hygiene and, of course, on close contacts with Jews.
Black Death in Western Europe
Now fast forward to the 14th century. It is this era that appears before the mind's eye of most of us when pronouncing the phrase "black in Europe." The pandemic peaked in 1346-1352, killing (again) 25 million people. That was one third of the total population of Europe. But do not think that everything was done only in Europe. Also, do not think that then it was the only global catastrophe. For example, here is a brief digest of the catastrophes of the 14th century.
- The famous 100 Years War is going on between England and France.
- In Italy, there is a rather tough squabble between the Guelfis and the Gebellins - supporters of the Pope and the German Emperor.
- In Russia, the Tatar-Mongol yoke is established
- In Spain, the reconquista, feudal and wars are in full swing.
Well, besides the political hell, there was also a climatic hell:
- There was an expansion of the steppe zones, which increased the number of carriers of infection.
- There was less food. Almost the entire previous (XIII) century is characterized by powerful droughts.
- Greenland, due to the growth of ice, the settlements of the Vikings almost completely disappear.
- The so-called "Little Ice Age" begins.
- Frequent and strong earthquakes occur in the Himalayas
- Numerous volcanoes are active in India
- In Russia in the XIV century dry years, the invasion of rodents and famine.
- In China, in the 30-40s of the XIV century, powerful seismic activity begins, leading to the collapse of some mountain ranges and to very strong floods and, accordingly, to famine. In one of these floods alone, which hit the capital of the Middle Kingdom, about 400,000 people died.
- You can also recall the eruption of Etna in 1333 and the subsequent increase in humidity, as a result of which many cities in Western Europe were flooded due to heavy rains.
- There have been several major locust outbreaks in Germany
- Across Europe, there is an increase in the number of cases of attacks by wild animals due to starvation.
- Very cold winters and a major flood in 1354 that literally devastated the shores of the North Sea.
- It was also noted that the epidemic of the plague was preceded by the extremely widespread distribution of smallpox and leprosy, and the 14th century was no exception.
As you can see, the plague was not the only problem of that era. In addition, there were outbreaks of mass mental illness everywhere. By the way, there is one very interesting hypothesis on this score.
Mass insanity and psychotropic substances
American explorer Shane Rogers and his team decided to explore the most popular places on the planet among ghost hunters. Not even just points, but the so-called haunted houses, and in so many places they found the presence of a dangerous mold that can cause a psychotropic effect. Here the idea was born that psychotropic substances can be a strong enough catalyst for the formation of ideas about the supernatural. The same researchers also thought that agricultural technology could only relatively recently get rid of ergot living on cereals (it was from ergot that Albert Hoffmann synthesized the famous one). Therefore, ergot poisoning among peasants in the Middle Ages was a fairly common occurrence, and this can explain both ergotism and massive crazy dances and much more. This hypothesis has its own logical holes and its own logical patches that these holes close, so it is ultimately up to you to believe it or not.
Again about the plague
But back to the plague. Incompetent medicine and the almost complete lack of hygiene encouraged by the Catholic Church were the main factors in the rapid spread of the plague. Although in the Orthodox tradition there is a strange habit of kissing the same icon during mass epidemics.
In addition, sometimes the very fact of infection was hidden for various reasons, and the already blazing epidemic was learned only after several deaths. Once in Ovignon they learned about the plague only when 700 monks died in one night in one of the monasteries.
There is also a "beautiful story" about Khan Dzhanibek, or rather about his Tatar army and their biological weapons. For example, when besieging the city of Kafu, they threw plague corpses at it with the help of catapults. Previously, there was a popular version that this was the beginning of the European pandemic, but now this hypothesis is recognized as extremely unconvincing. The version is usually recognized that the plague entered Europe through the main trade routes from the territory of Italy, Byzantium and Spain.
It is impossible not to mention how the plague was perceived in the XIV century and how they tried to treat it. Medieval medicine could offer innovative methods such as:
- Attempts to absorb poisonous miasms in an infected room with an onion lying on the floor.
- Walking the streets with flowers
- Wearing pouches containing human feces around the neck
- Classic bloodletting
- Insertion of needles into testicles
- Sprinkling foreheads with the blood of slaughtered puppies and pigeons
- Tinctures of garlic and cabbage juice (which, against the general background, looks somehow too harmless)
- Kindling fires to clean the air from infection
- Collecting human gases in jars.
- Red-hot iron (the only method that somehow helped) plague buboes were cut and cauterized, if a person experienced this, he could have a chance to cope with the disease.
But the most effective was the formula “cito, longe, tarde” – “Quickly, far away, for a long time” to get out of the area of infection somewhere far away.
plague doctors
Separately, it is worth mentioning the bright characters of this era, who have already managed to become part of the mass media - plague doctors. They were paid 4 times more than ordinary doctors, despite the fact that many of them had no education at all (they were politely called empiricists). Mortuses became no less important characters on the streets of medieval plague cities - people who had been ill with the plague or simply criminals who were not sorry. They were mostly engaged in cleaning up corpses. also had a cultural side effect.
First of all, this is a rapid increase in the number of flagellants (from the Latin Flagellare - to beat, flog, torment). Apparently, it seemed to many that self-flagellation is a great way to cope with the gray (black?) Plague medieval everyday life. Religious hysteria and ideas about the approaching apocalypse are still worth arriving here. Distilled alcohol has also become insanely popular. Firstly, it was a good antiseptic, and secondly, at such times it is probably difficult not to drink.
Jewish conspiracy
Of course, one cannot fail to mention the Jewish conspiracy theory, which flourished in those years. Hysteria about the Jews and their pogroms are back in vogue. And after she forced confessions from several dozen suspects that they poisoned the wells, everything generally became bad. During this period, the Jewish conspiracy became trendy again throughout Europe.
(Suddenly) good sides. In Europe, a lot of cheap land and real estate appeared because less demand is cheaper than supply. Well, in the end, for centuries to come, mankind had a gloomy source of inspiration. A lot of stupid legends and superstitions are still associated with the plague.
Case in Nagorno-Karabakh
A plague epidemic broke out in Nagorno-Karabakh and someone began to dig up fresh plague burials. An investigation was carried out and as it turned out, there was some kind of local belief that explained that if family members begin to die one by one, you need to dig up the very first deceased and eat his heart and
Speaking of the plague in European history, we primarily mean the so-called "Black Death", which swept across the continent in 1346-1353 and mowed down - according to various estimates - from 30% to 50% of the population (15-30 million people) . Individual cities and regions lost half (for example, Provence) or even three-quarters of their inhabitants (Tuscany).
Europe has experienced similar upheavals before. In the 6th century, a pandemic swept the continent, which went down in history as the "Justinian Plague". But since then, everything was limited to individual outbreaks - until 1346.
Then a real catastrophe struck - a terrible epidemic, nicknamed by contemporaries "black death".
The plague came from the East, where it raged at the beginning of the decade, and Crimea was the first to be hit, followed by Constantinople. In that era, trade in the Mediterranean was of great importance and was very active, so that it did not take long for the disease to reach the major Italian ports and Marseille by ship.
Rampant obscurantism and plague pogroms
Medieval man did not have such a volume of knowledge about the world as you and I, and it was difficult to rationally explain many phenomena - including terrible diseases. Yes, the epidemics themselves were not something out of the ordinary, but the speed with which the black death spread through cities and villages, and its "inexorability" very quickly caused a surge of obscurantism in society.
Many saw the plague as punishment from above, looking for an explanation for what was happening in the distorted retellings of biblical legends, and tried to stop the epidemic with the help of religious rites. Mass marches with self-flagellation were organized, lower-ranking priests invented new rituals on the go, such as stretching a thread along the city wall.
The highest church hierarchs did not dare to intervene in the situation, although real sects of many thousands were forming before their eyes. The Vatican understood that prayers for illness did not help and people needed at least some kind of outlet.
Until very recently, the Catholic Church was very methodical in suppressing major heresies, such as the Cathar movement, but now it has let go of the reins.
If primitive superstitions forced people to lock themselves in their homes or leave cities, then the masterminds of the flagellants who whipped themselves or walked around the cities in white robes bianchi did the opposite. Mass events are not the best idea during an epidemic, to be sure.
Others found more rational explanations: they say, such a terrible misfortune cannot arise on its own, and the Lord is not so cruel - this is an evil intention or people, or the devil himself. Of course, in search of the perpetrators, they reached the imaginary sorcerers and the Jewish quarters.
Even got in leper colonies, although it would seem that they had absolutely nothing to do with it: the difference between their illness and the plague was obvious even to a medieval person.
Here the church no longer stood aside and tried to prevent bloodshed - both by exhortations and direct prohibitions: they threatened with excommunication for lynching. Alas, this did not always stop the crowd.
The Catholic Church at that time was the most powerful organization in Europe - the Vatican often dictated its will even to kings. But during the years of the Black Death, it turned out to be practically powerless: seeing the real state of affairs, people either rapidly lost faith, or, on the contrary, became uncontrollable fanatics.
Fortunately, in the current situation, there were still those who were ready to act decisively and effectively. Secular authorities came to the forefront of history.
Cold-blooded quarantines and the strengthening of secular power
The image of a plague doctor is well known to everyone, and there really was a point in creating such “sanitary units”.
Of course, they did not really know how to treat the sick - except that they opened and cauterized buboes for them. And the rats continued to spread plague fleas around the cities without hindrance (no one could figure out how the infection actually spreads).
Nevertheless, the presence in the outbreaks of the epidemic of people who could restore at least some order helped. However, not only plague doctors were thrown into the fight.
The Italian cities most affected at first by the epidemic quickly responded to the terrible events by establishing special commissions to deal with this issue. There was no serious experience in dealing with such a terrible scourge, but the authorities, nevertheless, took a number of reasonable measures. First of all, we created teams to collect, remove and bury corpses in separate burial grounds.
Now this may seem like a simple and obvious solution, but in the 14th century it was not easy to organize even the usual cleaning of the streets, and even more so to clean the city space from bodies lying here and there.
In addition, the authorities have developed a number of serious quarantine measures. Although the efficiency of administration in the 14th century left much to be desired, and in order to implement such decisions, remarkable administrative talent was required - the quarantine regime was in effect, and the epidemic was at least somewhat contained. The successful experience of the Italian authorities began to be quickly adopted throughout Europe.
Also, despite numerous protests, taverns and brothels were forcibly closed everywhere. The mayors understood that the population density in their estates was colossal and it would not be possible to completely solve the problem, but limiting contact between people as much as possible is a useful and necessary measure.
The experience of the Venetians, who approached the matter with a cool head, is especially impressive. Panic was suppressed not only by force, but also by personal example: while ordinary people sought to leave the cities, officials were strictly forbidden to flee. A quarantine was introduced on the nearby islands, where all arrivals were checked for symptoms of the disease.
The Black Death became the most serious test for the cities of Europe. And the secular authorities, in contrast to the eclipsed spiritual ones, passed it, albeit with varying success.
For the first time in centuries, the secular government proved to be better than the Catholic Church, and since then its influence has begun to grow markedly.
New face of Europe
It is impossible to overestimate the significance of what happened for Europe. It is difficult even to enumerate all the changes directly or indirectly associated with the black death. Oddly enough, some of these deepest scars have become a real decoration of the portrait of the era: a terrible disaster had a number of positive consequences.
Urban boom and women's emancipation
The value of labor, especially more or less skilled labor, has sharply increased. Many guilds (craft or trade communities), which were previously relatively closed organizations, now had to actively accept everyone into their ranks.
Of course, after that, a huge number of people wanted to move to the cities from the villages, especially since the former suffered more from the plague. For example, about a third of the property in London remained ownerless.
The incomes of skilled people increased dramatically - so much so that in many countries, cities and possessions this was quickly met with opposition from the authorities, who were trying to reduce wages again. The English in 1349 and 1351 adopted special laws restricting the growth of incomes of workers (in the second case, it was expressly forbidden to pay them more than in 1346).
However, these regulations did not work at all. Firstly, ordinary people felt their own strength: after all, the authorities cannot do without them - one way or another, someone has to work. Secondly, such an order obviously contradicted the basic laws of the market: if the supply was sharply reduced (there were simply fewer able-bodied people), then prices cannot but rise.
It even got to the point that everyone who tried to change jobs or move was required by law to be imprisoned - but such drastic measures were absolutely impossible.
A more adequate reaction of the authorities to the changes that frightened them was some summary decrees. Usually this term is called "taxes on luxury", but in this case we are talking about limiting consumption for the lower and middle strata of society. It was assumed that if people had nothing to spend more money on, they would not want to earn it either. But despite radical legislative initiatives, governments still failed to stop the changes that had begun.
The townspeople from the lower classes who survived after the plague epidemic noticeably improved their well-being.
The lack of hands also affected the position of women - in such a situation, there is no time for sexism. Girls' or mixed guilds existed in Europe before the Black Death, but now women have a real opportunity, so to speak, to move up the career ladder. To a lesser extent, this affected the inhabitants of the villages, but a lot has already changed in the rural way of life ...
Liberation of the peasantry
Perhaps the peasants benefited from the plague, so to speak, the most. Serfdom in Western Europe even before the epidemic was gradually giving way to a new system of class relations, and a sharp decline in the population intensified this trend: the feudal lords had to enter into a dialogue with people working on the land.
As a result, in almost all of Western Europe, the rights of the peasants soon expanded, and various kinds of requisitions decreased. Of course, many feudal lords tried to counteract this, so that soon the villagers again had reasons for uprisings. However, it also became much more difficult for weakened states to suppress their speeches.
The plague undoubtedly played a prominent role in the process of emancipating the peasants. A lot of free land was formed - left over from those who simply did not survive the Black Death. A holy place is never empty, and fertile - all the more so: these fields and, most importantly, pastures have made it possible to improve the situation with food in Europe.
Trade also received a new impetus: for example, England began regular deliveries to Scandinavia and the Netherlands, where conditions for agriculture were far from ideal.
By the way, they began to work in the villages in a slightly different way: the role of animal husbandry, which required a much smaller number of workers than agriculture, increased markedly. The allotments themselves have become much cheaper, and labor on them has risen in price. This could not compensate for the terrible loss of life, but it served as at least some consolation.
This is true for Western Europe. In the East, where the population density was lower, mainly the cities were seriously affected by the plague, and in the situation of the inhabitants of the countryside, which was less affected by the epidemic, little has changed. Serfdom in some regions persisted here right up to the 19th century.
Democratization of the Church
The real Reformation is still far away, but already at that time Protestantism was born: the former balance in spiritual life, which was very stable, was violated.
If the bitter example of the Cathars cut to the root discouraged many from any free-thinking at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, now Europeans have clearly seen that the Vatican is not so omnipotent.
Since even in Italy the church could not (or did not want to) do anything with the rampant sects of varying degrees of adequacy, then why not oppose it to people in their right mind, who, moreover, have justified claims and demands?
The clergy also thinned greatly during the epidemic, which, alas, contributed a lot, just the care of the monks for the sick - sometimes the monasteries simply died out from the plague. And patching up personnel gaps here was much more difficult than in the ranks of peasants and workers: we are talking about specialists of fairly high qualification.
Throughout the Middle Ages, the church was the best and, most importantly, constantly available social elevator. Theoretically, any commoner could start a career as a servant in a temple or a novice in a monastery, and die as a pope. This is one of the few areas of activity in the Middle Ages where everything depended on the efforts and talents of the person himself, and not on any external factors like origin.
Now there are much more “jobs” in the church, which means that many people have a great chance to realize themselves. This even affected women: now they could achieve more in the monastic service.
The Black Death played a colossal role in the fate of religious minorities: the Jews who lived all over the continent and the Muslims who settled on the Iberian Peninsula. And again, we must remember the proverb “there would be no happiness, but misfortune helped”: on the one hand, the Gentiles suffered greatly from the pogroms, and even after the pandemic they continued to be blamed for all the troubles. The already complex relationship between people of different faiths has become aggravated, as it always happens in times of crisis. But on the other hand, the rise of science, the increased need for well-trained specialists turned out to be a boon for the same Jews. So that the communities that were oppressed during the illness not only recovered, but in part even became stronger.
The development of medicine and the cohesion of society
And of course, the catastrophe that befell Europe spurred the development of medicine. The prestige of this faculty at universities increased dramatically, active research began: people wanted to figure out what caused the black death and how to prevent its recurrence.
Of course, before the discoveries of Louis Pasteur, it was technically impossible to achieve great success in this field, but the positive effect for science is obvious. The same anatomical studies, which traditionally met with opposition from the church, have become more loyal.
In the end, a huge number of noble and influential people died from the plague, up to kings and the highest hierarchs of the church. Among them are the Castilian monarch Alfonso XI, Queen of Aragon Eleanor of Portugal and Vladimir Prince Simeon the Proud (the common belief that there was no plague in Russia is a delusion).
Now everyone understood that diseases were a common problem, and not a misfortune of the lower strata alone. You can't hide from the plague behind the walls of a castle or a temple. To some extent, no matter how pathetic it may sound, the misfortune that happened rallied society, although the Middle Ages still remained the Middle Ages - the era of the strongest social stratification.
Some scientists even note the role of the black death in natural selection, or, if you like, the evolution of mankind. According to them, after the pandemic, genes spread that increased people's resistance to dangerous diseases. But statements of this kind are still quite controversial, and these studies are not directly related to historical science.
After the black death
The plague misadventures of Europe did not end there. There will be many more major epidemics. Let's say that in 1664-1665 London will lose about 25% of the population, and in 1720-1722 the same Marseille, which was once the "gate" for the black death, will suffer even more. Let us also recall the plague riot in Moscow - which happened, by the way, during not the largest of the epidemics that Russia knew.
But none of the subsequent outbreaks of plague or any other disease was such a shock for European civilization. It can be said that the Black Death hardened the Old World.
Despite the terrible damage suffered by all European countries, this tragedy had positive consequences.
In medicine, there is the concept of a crisis - a turning point in the course of a disease. Plague became such a “crisis” for the entire region. Europe could not withstand this test and risked rolling back into the "dark ages", once again finding itself in the state in which it was in the first centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire. But the plague crisis was successfully overcome, and it was not long before the Renaissance.
