In the 12th century, the Polovtsy were considered the most dangerous enemies for the population of Ancient Russia. They led a nomadic lifestyle and occupied the steppe territories in the valleys of the Don and Dnieper. Khan Konchak led the raids of the Polovtsians. In Russia, he was called "the godless, cursed destroyer."
For Russian princes, military campaigns were not only a way to expand their possessions, but also to raise their own authority.
In 1185 Prince Igor went on a campaign against the Polovtsy.
Prerequisites
Quite a lot of information about Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This ancient source describes the weapons and the path of the squads, battle tactics.
First stage Prince Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy fell in the spring of 1185. By this time, the prince was 35. Previously, Igor had maintained rather friendly relations with Konchak. The Polovtsians were often involved in internecine wars for neighboring territories. In 1180, the prince, together with the Polovtsian khan, went to Kiev. However, the campaign was unsuccessful.
Already 3 years later, an active struggle against the Polovtsians began. Quite often, Igor acted independently: he attacked enemies only with his squad, without turning to neighboring princes for help.
IN a story about a campaign against the Polovtsians Prince Igor characterized as a courageous and brave warrior. However, he was short-sighted and reckless. He aspired to glory and did not care much for his land.
One year before unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, the nomads were defeated by the joint army of Svyatoslav and neighboring princes. In Russia, it was considered that the nomads would no longer attack the country. However, everything turned out to be wrong.
The beginning of the path of the Russian rati
except Prince Igor, on a campaign against the Polovtsy his brother, nephew and son participated. The first was Vsevolod Kursky, the second - Olgovich Rylsky, the third - Vladimir Putivlsky. Yaroslav (ruler of Chernigov) sent a detachment of Kuevs to Igor. These were semi-nomadic peoples living in the southern territories of the Chernigov land. At the head of this detachment was Olstin Oleksich.
Having reached the borders, the Russian soldiers saw a solar eclipse. This was considered a warning sign. However, they did not take it into account and continued to move. After a while, several warriors went in search of the "language". Returning, he told about a large number of nomads preparing for battle. It was necessary to make a decision: either quickly attack the enemy, or turn back. Igor could not go for the second option, otherwise it would have been a shame worse than death.
Short description
The bloody battle began in May 1185. According to sources, all tribal groups of nomads went to the battle. Several Russian princes, including Igor, were captured. A small group of Russian soldiers was able to break out of the encirclement of the Polovtsians. All the rest were killed.
Prince Igor managed to get out of captivity. However, his son remained with the Polovtsians. Vladimir was forced to marry the Khan's daughter. Subsequently, he nevertheless returned to his homeland.
Course of events
On the first day of the battle, Prince Igor managed to win. By lunchtime, the squad overtook the Polovtsians. The nomads abandoned their tents and moved to the other side of the river. Syuurliy.
IN Prince Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy 6 regiments participated. In the center were his warriors, on the right - Vsevolod, on the left - his nephew. These shelves were the main ones. Before them stood Igor's son with a detachment of Kuevs from Chernigov. Another regiment was prefabricated. It included archers from all other units.
Igor called the regiments to battle. The warriors were protected by chain mail and shields; Russian flags fluttered in the wind. Approaching the river, the soldiers saw the Polovtsian archers. The latter fired arrows at the Russians and began to run away.
Further down the river were the main Polovtsian regiments. They also took to flight. Vladimir and Svyatoslav with soldiers began to pursue the nomads. Igor and his brother walked slowly, not disbanding the detachments. A lot of booty was captured in the camp of nomads: gold, fabrics, clothes. Polovtsian girls were also captured.
At this time, the nomads pulled their ranks to the battlefield.
Environment
It started at dawn. The Polovtsy began to advance in great numbers from all sides. The princes decided to leave the encirclement. The warriors got down from their ends and began to fight with the nomads.
Vsevolod showed special courage on the battlefield. Prince Igor was wounded in the arm. The weather was hot, people and horses, who were in the ring of nomads, were cut off from the river. Everyone was thirsty.
The battle lasted all day. Many Russian soldiers were killed and wounded. The next day, the Kui began to flee from the battlefield. Igor tried to stop them, but could not. On the way back to the battlefield, he was taken prisoner.
The best combatants remained in the center of the battle and fought to the death. Captured, Igor watched his relatives die, saw the death of Vsevolod.
Consequences of defeat
Failed Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy was a real shock to the Russian people.
Having won, the nomads began the ruin of ancient Russian cities. The invasion was successful, including because of the tense internecine war. None of the princes wanted to help their neighbors. Everyone tried to separate themselves. Moreover, the attacks of the princes on each other were frequent. They sought to seize territories and expand their principality.
The nomads who won the battle began to move in spirit directions. First of all, they went to Pereyaslav. The second part went along the bank of the Seim. The defense in Pereyaslav was held by Vladimir Glebovich. The regiments of the Kiev prince were sent to help him. The Polovtsy, in turn, deciding not to engage in a collision, turned back. On the way to their steppes, they burned the city of Rimov.
conclusions
The defeat of Igor in the battle with the Polovtsy clearly showed that the principality alone was unable to cope with the invasion of nomads on its own. The reason for the failure of the campaign is the lack of unity on Russian soil.
After the defeat from the Polovtsy, the borders of Russia from the side of the steppe became open. This allowed the nomads to freely penetrate Russian soil, devastate cities, and take people into captivity. Moreover, the Polovtsy raided not only the border lands, but also went deep into the Old Russian state.
The internecine war of the Russian princes lasted a very long time. Principalities passed from one hand to another. The common people suffered the most from this. If the warriors received at least some income from the battles in the form of captured booty, then the people who worked on the land, after each raid or collision, were left without a harvest.
Conclusion
Many states wanted to seize Russian lands. However, nomads have always posed a particular danger to the population. They had strong and cruel rulers who managed to unite all the scattered tribes into one horde. Their unity was their strength. In addition, they were mobile, sat perfectly in the saddle, showed courage in battles, felt good in the field, and often went to the trick.
The lack of unity of the Russian principalities led to very deplorable consequences. The state did not have time to recover from constant raids. As a result, the Tatar-Mongol yoke hung over the principalities for a long time. And it was possible to get rid of him only after the unification of the princes and their squads and the beginning of civil strife in the Horde itself.
Old Russian
literature
Where will our acquaintance with Russian literature begin? From immersion in the "mysterious past centuries", in the Russian Middle Ages, in the times of Kievan, and later Muscovite Russia.
Let's imagine the capital city of Kyiv with its cathedrals, Moscow Belokamennaya and its forty-forties, border wild steppes, raids of nomads and reciprocal campaigns of Russian princes, princely civil strife, the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the Battle of Kulikovo, the first "foreign" travels, clashes with Western neighbors, Time of Troubles...
These seven centuries were partly reflected in the works of ancient Russian literature that have come down to us, ranging from chronicles to secular and military stories written in “old words” - in Old Slavonic and Old Russian.
Listen to the old words: more, rtsi, velmi, despondent.“The Dnieper is crying to the dark birch of the mother of Rostislavl” - “On the dark bank of the Dnieper, the mother of Rostislav is crying.”
Read ancient books, first handwritten and then printed and often anonymous, and you will discover the world in which our ancestors lived, and you will find out what pleased and excited them, how they loved and suffered, what they thought, with whom they fought.
Read the epigraph more carefully. Where did these words come from and what do they mean? Isn't it true that they hear a warning addressed to posterity, today, to you and me?
We recommend that you familiarize yourself with the works of Academician Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev on Old Russian literature, addressed to youth and schoolchildren. They tell in a fascinating and accessible way about what seemed incomprehensible, complex or boring to you. And you will easily, playfully answer the questions proposed here.
Are you ready to enter the game? Then go ahead! Good luck!
1. Who compiled the first Slavic alphabet and what name did it get?
2. How can one prove that in Russia there was a cult of literacy in different segments of the population?
3. The first books were collections of translated and original works. What were they called?
4. Where did Pushkin get the legend about the death of Prince Oleg (“Song of the Prophetic Oleg”)?
5. What was the title of the oldest Russian chronicle and who was its author?
6. The chronicler claimed that the Slavs descended from one of the sons of Noah. What?
7. What did the chronicler compare with the rivers that feed the whole world: “behold the rivers that water the universe”?
8. How did Princess Olga take revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband?
9. What phrase did Prince Svyatoslav utter when addressing the squad before the battle: “Let us not shame the Russian land, but lie down with bones, the dead ones ...”?
10. How, judging by the chronicle, did the besieged Belgorodians outwit the Pechenegs, forcing them to lift the siege and treating them to “drink” from the wells?
11. To whom did Prince Vladimir Monomakh address in his "Instruction"?
12. Who were the first Russian saints and why were they canonized? What work was dedicated to them?
13. Are you aware of works in ancient Russian literature entitled "The Word about ..."? Why were they called that?
14. What did Metropolitan Hilarion consider “law” and what “grace” in his “Sermon on Law and Grace” (XI century)?
15. There was a genre of "life" in ancient Russian literature. What are these works, to whom were they dedicated? Give examples.
16. What question does The Tale of Igor's Campaign begin with?
17. Whom does the author call "the nightingale of the old time"?
18. What artistic declaration does the author proclaim at the beginning of the Lay... and does he put it into practice?
19. With whom is the legendary singer Boyan compared in the process of creation: “if anyone wants to create a song, then ...”?
20. Is the following translation accurate: “mys” is a thought, and “bebryan” is a beaver (“spreads with thought on a tree”, “I will wet a beaver sleeve in the Kayala River”)?
21. With whom did Prince Igor go on a campaign?
22. What epithet is used for the word "horses": "Let's sit down, brothers, on our ... horses"? Who is saying this and to whom?
23. How does Prince Igor define the goal of his campaign: “to drink ...”? What does this expression mean?
24. What epic hero does the buoy-tour Vsevolod remind of, who “jumps wherever - there are filthy Polovtsian heads”?
25. What Polovtsian khans are mentioned in the "Word..."?
26. Who are the "God's grandchildren"?
27. Which god appears in the "Word ..." as the patron of the Polovtsians?
28. Will we know the name of Konchak's daughter?
29. What refrain, dedicated to farewell to the native land, sounds in the “Word…”?
30. When did the eclipse of the sun actually occur, and what role does it play in the plot of the "Words ..."?
31. On the bank of which river was Prince Igor defeated?
32. What does the author compare the battle with?
33. In the "dark dream" of Svyatoslav, large pearls are poured onto his chest from Polovtsian quivers. What does it symbolize?
34. What "word" does the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav pronounce?
35. What poetic device is used in the following phrase: "Behold my silver gray hair"? Whose words are these?
36. Why "Kyiv groaned from sadness, and Chernigov from misfortune"?
37. What forces of nature does Yaroslavna conjure, asking her to return her beloved, to help her “lada”?
38. Recall a literary tale of the 19th century, the hero of which also turns to the elements of nature three times with a request to tell where his bride is.
39. How does the "Word..." metaphorically speak of the capture of Igor?
40. Who helped the prince escape from captivity?
41. How do plants grieve about the fate of heroes? What is the name of this artistic technique?
42. And heroes are often compared to birds and beasts. Give examples.
43. With what "child" did the princes return to the Russian land from captivity?
44. What do cities and countries rejoice at: “countries are glad, cities are cheerful”?
45. The author calls Konchak not only filthy, but also ... as a character in Russian fairy tales. What was the meaning of this word?
46. Are Christian concepts, church terms mentioned in the “Word…”?
47. Traces of what pagan cult can be found in the work? Give examples.
48. Is the author of the Lay known? Who was he, who is he?
49. What folklore genres did he rely on and what did he call his work?
50. By whom and when was one of the lists of "Words ..." found? What was his further fate?
51. Which of the Russian poets used the images of the "Word ..." shortly after its discovery and publication?
52. What poetic translations of the Lay... do you know?
53. What musical and pictorial works on the plots of "Words ..." can you name?
54. What is the name of the work about Batu's invasion of Ryazan and the beginning of the Tatar yoke?
55. What hero, who with a small retinue beat "a great force - the Tatar army", is described in this story?
56. The Ryazans fought with the Tatars "one with a thousand, and two with you." How many people are in darkness?
57. Who said about whom: “These people are winged and do not have death” and “If such a man served me, he would hold him against his heart”?
58. To whom does the Ryazan prince Yuri address: “It’s better for us to buy a belly with death than in a filthy ... life”? Insert the missing word.
59. How does Princess Evpraksia die, not wanting to outlive her husband, who was killed by the Tatars?
60. In what ancient Russian monuments is the victory of the Russians over Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo glorified?
61. Who blessed Prince Dimitri for the battle with the Tatars?
62. What was the name of the Russian monk-bogatyr who defeated the Tatar batyr in single combat?
63. Why is the story about the Battle of Kulikovo called "Zadonshchina"?
64. The author of "Zadonshchina" deliberately builds it by analogy with another ancient Russian work, contrasting the past and the present, defeat and victory: there "the black earth is sown with the bones of Russians" - here ..., there "Gothic maidens rang with Russian gold" - here. .., there “longing has spread on the Russian land” - here ... . What work are you talking about?
65. What is the well-known theory about the world role of the Russian state was formulated in the XV century. by the Pskov elder Philotheus: Moscow - the Third Rome after the second - ..., and the fourth ...?
66. What style was called “word weaving” in ancient Russian literature?
67. In the "Zadonshchina" Kolomna wives cry and ask the prince to dam the Dnieper with oars, and scoop out the Don with a helmet. What does the Dnieper have to do with it, why is it mentioned?
68. Narrating about the preparation for the battle, the author writes: “the trumpets are blowing on Kolomna”, “the banners are at the Great Don”. And where did the trumpets sound and the banners stand in the Tale of Igor's Campaign?
69. What Russian poet at the beginning of the 20th century. will turn to the topic of the Battle of Kulikovo and in what work?
70. In the XVI century. a collection of "teachings and punishments" to husband and wife, their children and slaves, which prescribed how to behave in the family, was very popular. What was the name of this collection?
71. What story about the love of a prince and a simple peasant girl resembles, on the one hand, a biblical legend, and on the other, a European chivalric romance? What legend and what novel?
72. How do the lovers in this story overcome death, which cannot separate them?
73. What principle of equality of all in the face of the sovereign was put forward by a publicist of the 16th century. Ivan Peresvetov: “I am all children...”?
74. What was the title of the first Russian book of travels to distant countries?
75. What country did Afanasy Nikitin go to and how many years did he spend there?
76. What "first printed" book was published by Ivan Fedorov in 1564?
77. Who was the author of the first political pamphlet in Russian literature - "The Story of the Grand Duke of Moscow" - and to whom was the pamphlet dedicated?
78. What stories of the XVII century. parodied legal proceedings and denounced the bribery of judges?
79. Which story tells a story that resembles the parable of the prodigal son, but whose hero never returned to his home?
80. Whose portrait is this: "Barefoot, no ... not a thread, still with a bast ... girded", but does he have a heroic voice?
81. Did the young man manage to escape from the Grief that pursued him?
82. What conclusions do the hero and the author come to: “When I have nothing, and I grieve ...” and “And to live in grief - ... to be”?
83. At the court of which king was the first Russian theater created, the performances in which lasted 10 hours in a row?
84. What were the names of wandering actors in folk booths?
85. Which of the writers, talking about his 15-year imprisonment, described how he rotted in an "earthly coffin" in anticipation of death, cursed his tormentors and prayed to God?
86. With whom did he compare himself: "like ... I lie on my belly in straw"?
87. What biblical episode is the author interpreting in a modern spirit: “The crafty owner fed and watered, and shoved him out of the yard. Drunk lying on the street, robbed, and no one will have mercy?
88. In one story of the XVII century. a young man falls in love with someone else's wife and sells his soul to the devil, and in the other, a rogue hero, with the help of all sorts of tricks, achieves the hand of a rich bride. Name these stories.
89. As in the XVII century. called ancient Russian poems and why?
90. The largest poet of the 17th century, who became a monk and became a teacher of the royal children, chose a poetic pseudonym for himself after the name of his native city. Who is this poet?
91. How can one understand the title of Simeon Polotsky's book "Multicolor Vertograd"?
92. What is the meaning of the lines written by S. Polotsky: “The honor of the parents does not pass to the son, If he does not imitate their virtues”?
93. In ancient Russian literature, female names are rare: heroines are called by their father or by their husband. Can you give examples of names, patronymics, surnames?
94. Do you know old Russian painters? Which of them was filmed by a Russian director of the 20th century?
95. Name the famous monuments of ancient Russian architecture.
1. Slavic brothers from Thessalonica, Constantine (monastic Cyril) and Methodius. Cyrillic - based on the Greek alphabet (863-864).
2. Opening of birch bark letters written by merchants, artisans, peasants (smerds); the tradition of reading aloud and copying texts, writing, common not only among monks, but also among princes, kings, warriors and boyars.
3. "Izborniki", i.e. collections of various works.
4. From the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years". Oleg the Prophet stepped on the skull of his horse, "and popped the snake out of his forehead, pecking at his leg" (912).
5. “The Tale of Bygone Years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began to reign first and where did the Russian land come from” (XII century) - the first words of the chronicle became its title. Monk Nestor.
6. Japheth.
7. Book words, books.
8. She demanded from each yard 3 doves and 3 sparrows instead of tribute, ordered to tie a lit tinder to them, and they, returning to the nests, burned the city of Iskorosten.
9. "... Shame on the imam" (971).
10. In the wells, tubs with jelly and honey were placed in advance, and the enemies believed that the Belgorod people were fed by the land itself and they could not be defeated (“The Tale of the Belgorod Kissel”).
11. To sons and to all Russian princes.
12. Princes, brothers Boris and Gleb. They were canonized as "passion-bearers" - innocently killed by their elder brother Svyatopolk (1015). "The Tale of Boris and Gleb".
13. "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion (XI century), "Sermon on Igor's Campaign" (XII century), "Sermon on the Destruction of the Russian Land" (XIII century). These works are addressed to the listeners like a spoken speech.
14. Old and New Testament, proving the superiority of the second over the first.
15. Lives of saints canonized by the Christian Church: "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh", "The Life" of Archpriest Avvakum (although the latter does not quite comply with the laws of the genre).
16. “Is it not absurd, brethren, to begin with the old words of difficult stories about the regiment of Igor, Igor Svyatoslavovich?”
17. Boyana - the legendary old Russian singer.
18. Write "according to the epics of this time, and not according to the plan of Boyan", i.e., adhere to actual events, and not invent them; however, he himself turns to fiction (for example, Svyatoslav's "prophetic dream"), and to figurative and rhetorical speech.
19. “... spreads like a mouse on a tree, a gray wolf on the ground, a blue-gray eagle under the heavens” (“mouse” is translated either as a thought, or as a squirrel).
20. Rather - “squirrel”, since the comparison system is maintained in a single key: squirrel, wolf, eagle (and not thought, wolf, eagle). Bebryan is a kind of silk fabric of a special manufacture, not beaver fur.
21. With brother Vsevolod, son Vladimir and nephew Svyatoslav.
22. "... greyhounds", that is, fast. Prince Igor to his relatives.
23. "... with a helmet to the Don." Drinking water from the river of a defeated country is a symbol of victory.
24. Ilya Muromets.
25. Gzak and Konchak.
26. So the author of the "Words ..." calls the Russians - the sons of the God of the Sun.
27. Stribog - God of the Winds.
28. No, the khans call her the "red maiden."
29. “O Russian land, you are already over the hill!”
30. May 1, 1185, at the very beginning of the campaign, off the coast of Oskol; this sign foreshadowed failure.
31. Kayaly - from the verb "kayati" (mourn, regret). What real river was meant is not clear.
32. With plowing and reaping: “The earth is black under the hooves, sown with the bones of Russians” and “sheaves spread their heads”; with a feast - “Here the brave Russians finished the feast: they got the matchmakers drunk, and they themselves died for the Russian land” (by the way, Konchak is indeed Igor’s matchmaker: their children are engaged); with a thunderstorm - “To be a great thunder! Rain with arrows from the great Don!
33. In Slavic mythology and Russian folklore, pearls mean tears.
34. "Golden word, mixed with tears."
35. Alliteration for the sound "s". Words of Svyatoslav, Prince of Kiev.
36. Kyiv sympathizes with the defeat of the princes, and Chernigov suffers from the raids of the nomads, who raised their heads after their victory and devastated the south of Russia.
37. Wind, Dnieper and sun: the first patronizes the Polovtsy, the last - the Russians, and the Dnieper Slovutich is the border Slavic river.
38. "The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Bogatyrs" by A. S. Pushkin, in which Prince Elisha refers to the wind, the sun and the month.
39. “Here Prince Igor moved from a golden saddle to a Koshchievo saddle,” that is, a slave.
40. Polovtsian Ovlur.
41. "Grass droops with pity, and a tree bows to the ground with sadness." Personification.
42. Igor rides like a wolf, like an ermine, swims like a goldeneye, flies like a falcon; Yaroslavna cries with a zegzitsa, "cuckoos like a lonely cuckoo early in the morning."
43. With the grandson of Igor Izyaslav - the son of Vladimir and Konchakovna.
44. Return of Igor from captivity.
45. Koshcheem. V. Dal connects the origin of this word with “bones” (a haggard, thin person, a miser, a miser). It was used in the meaning of "vile slave, infidel."
46. "Amen", which ends the "Word ..."; "Christians" and others; Polovtsians are called "nasty": "trapping for Christians on filthy regiments."
47. Cult of the Sun: four suns - four princes, Yaroslavna's appeal to the "bright sun", "The sun shines in heaven - Igor is a prince in the Russian land." The eclipse of the sun symbolizes the darkening of the light of truth in the soul of the prince.
48. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" anonymous, author unknown; perhaps he was Igor's combatant who participated in the campaign, or close to the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, a supporter of the Olgovichi, exaggerating their strength.
49. To laments and "glory" (song praises). "Word", "song", "story".
50. Collector of ancient manuscripts A. I. Musin-Pushkin in the 90s. 18th century The original burned down during the Moscow fires in 1812.
51. A. N. Radishchev. "Songs sung at competitions in honor of the ancient Slavic deities"; V. A. Zhukovsky. "Singer in the camp of Russian soldiers"; A. S. Pushkin. "Ruslan and Ludmila"; K. F. Ryleev. "Boyan".
52. V. Zhukovsky, A. Maykov, K. Balmont, N. Zabolotsky, V. Stelletsky, I. Shklyarevsky, V. Sosnora, V. Kozhevnikov.
53. Opera by A. Borodin "Prince Igor"; paintings by V. Vasnetsov “After the battle of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsy”, V. Perov “Lament of Yaroslavna”, V. Schwartz “Boyan”, K. Vasilyev “Yaroslavna”.
54. "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu" (XIII century).
55. About Evpaty Kolovrat (probably a nickname meaning "gate, shaft with levers, drill").
56. Ten thousand.
57. Tatars about Ryazans and Batu about Kolovrat.
58. To the squad, "... the will."
59. Having learned about the death of her husband, she threw herself out of the “high tower” with her little son.
60. "Zadonshchina" (XIV century), "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" (XV century).
61. Sergius of Radonezh.
62. Peresvet.
63. At the place of the battle - "beyond the Don."
64. About the "Word about Igor's Campaign". "... Tatar"; "Russian wives splashed with Tatar gold"; "Already across the Russian land, joy and riot are spreading."
65. According to this theory, it was the Russian people who preserved the true Orthodox faith, so Moscow should become the Christian center. Byzantium. Don't be.
66. "Weaving of verbal wreaths", i.e. praise with an abundance of complex syntactic constructions, increased metaphor and rhetorical devices.
67. Yaroslavna turned to the Dnieper, this is a border Russian river.
68. In Novegrad and Putivl.
69. A. Blok. Cycle of poems "On the field of Kulikovo".
70. "Domostroy".
71. "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" - a biblical legend about King Solomon and Sulamith, a novel about Tristan and Isolde.
72. They died on the same day and hour, and they were placed in different coffins, but the next day their bodies were together in a common, pre-prepared coffin.
73. "... Adamovs."
74. “Journey beyond three seas” by Afanasy Nikitin.
75. To India, three years.
76. "Apostle" - a book of apostolic letters for worship.
77. Prince Andrei Kurbsky - to Tsar Ivan IV.
78. "The Tale of Ersh Ershovich" and "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court."
79. "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune."
80. "... Woe", "... Woe".
81. Yes, he is saved in a monastery.
82. "... not about anything", "... nekruchinnu".
83. Alexei Mikhailovich.
84. Buffoons.
85. Archpriest Avvakum.
86. "... doggy."
87. About the devil who seduced Eve and Adam and left them in trouble after being expelled from paradise.
88. "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn" and "The Tale of Frol Skobeev".
89. Verses (from Latin verse - poems) - syllabic Russian poems were created according to the Polish model. When writing such poems, only the number of syllables (syllabus) was taken into account, and not the number of stresses.
90. Simeon of Polotsk (city of Polotsk).
91. An orchard or vineyard with many different varieties of fruits, berries, and flowers.
92. The honor of parents is not transferred to the son if he does not imitate their virtues (the eternal problem of fathers and children).
93. Evpraksia and Fevronia, Yaroslavna and Markovna, Andreeva and Svyatopolcha.
94. Theophan the Greek and Andrei Rublev. A. Tarkovsky made a film about the latter.
95. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (XI century), the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (XII century), the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (XIV century), the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin (XIV-XVII centuries), St. Basil's Cathedral (XVI century. ), Novodevichy Convent (XVII century), Transfiguration Church in Kizhi (XVII century).
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Chapter I
1.1. On the goals of Prince Igor's campaign
By the end of the 12th century, the negative consequences of the collapse of the once unified Russian state were clearly manifested. Princely strife not only disrupted economic activity in the eternally conflicting principalities, but also led to a weakening of their military power in the face of external threats. Not only individual princes, but also entire dynasties were at enmity with each other. So, for example, the descendants of Oleg Svyatoslavovich Chernigovsky (Olgovichi) constantly clashed with the sons and grandsons of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh - the Monomashichs. In their strife, the Russian princes increasingly involved nomads, with whose top they were in close family ties. So, Vsevolod Yaroslavovich the Quiet, the son of Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise, after his first wife - the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Konstantin Monomakh, the mother of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, had a second wife, a Polovtsian Anna, who was the mother of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Svyatopolk (Mikhail) Izyaslavovich Ardent, the son of Izyaslav Yaroslavovich the Gentle, the grandson of Vladimir the Holy, had a wife Elena - the daughter of the Polovtsian prince Tugorkan, from whom he had four sons - Mstislav, Izyaslav, Yaroslav and Bryacheslav and two daughters - Sbyslava and Preslav. The founder of Moscow, George (Yuri) Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, had his first wife - the daughter of Aepa, the Polovtsian Khan. Prince Igor on his mother's side was the grandson of a Polovtsian woman and the great-grandson of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa. Rurik Rostislavovich, co-ruler of Svyatoslav in Kyiv, was married to the daughter of Beglyuk, the sister of Gzak, the Polovtsian Khan, and had two sons - Rostislav and Vladimir. Oleg Svyatoslavovich Seversky was married by his first marriage to Theophania Muzalon, and by his second marriage to the daughter of the Polovtsian prince Osulk (Osoluk), who is the mother of Svyatoslav Seversky and the grandmother of the main characters of The Lay .... Thus, Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich on his father's side was the grandson of a Polovtsian woman, the great-grandson of the Polovtsian Khan Osoluk. The son of Igor Svyatoslavovich Vladimir Igorevich married the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Konchak, and the grandson of Igor Svyatoslavovich was also the grandson of Konchak.Close family ties between the Russian, Polovtsian, Chernoklobutsky elites encouraged the steppe dwellers to take an active part in the political life of Russia. Princely strife, superimposed on continuous conflicts in the Steppe, did not at all contribute to the strengthening of Russian statehood.
The events took on a particularly threatening character after the unsuccessful campaign of the specific Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavovich against the Polovtsy. The researcher of ancient Russian literature V. Ya. Keltuyala wrote about the purpose of this campaign: “Igor, together with his brother Vsevolod from Trubchevsk, son Vladimir and nephew Svyatoslav Olgovich from Rylsk, went to the Don horde, intending to seize the historical property of the latter captured from the Polovtsians - the Don waterway , and even, if successful, such an important trade and military position as Tmutarakan" [Keltuyala, 1928, p. 80]. This point of view is confirmed by the words of the boyars, commenting on Svyatoslav's dream in the "Word ...": "... behold, two falcons flew down from the table of gold to search for the city of Tmutarakan."
The strategic goals of the campaign conceived by Prince Igor tend to be ignored by researchers who explain the reasons for this campaign solely by Igor's daring. Indeed, the small army of Prince Igor could not protect the Don waterway, which ran at a great distance from Russian cities, but this does not at all give grounds to deny Prince Igor's far-reaching plans. The fact is that he could establish control over the Don with the help of his Polovtsian allies and relatives. To do this, it was necessary to ensure their hegemony in the steppe.
In January 1180, Igor became the prince of the Seversk land. His first act was to conclude an alliance with the Polovtsians. The allies took an active part in the princely strife. In the battle for Kyiv in 1181, their troops were defeated, and Igor and Konchak miraculously escaped retribution, sailing away on the same boat. Igor's friendly relations with Konchak are explained, in particular, by Igor's consanguinity with the Polovtsians. In 1146, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Igor's father), contesting the right to the Kyiv throne from Izyaslav Mstislavovich, asked his "uevs" (Polovtsian maternal uncles) to help him in the fight against Izyaslav.
Igor became Konchak's matchmaker before his campaign against the Polovtsians. This fact may testify not only to Igor's desire to strengthen his ties with Konchak in every possible way, but also to the desire to make the most of them. His army could successfully fight with individual Polovtsian khans and contribute to the growth of Konchak's authority. It is quite possible that it was Konchak who brought Igor's regiments to the competing horde of Kzak, demanding the appropriate service for the service. The consolidation of the Polovtsy under the leadership of Konchak could lead to the implementation of Igor's strategic goals, which did not contradict the interests of Russia. They did not contradict the interests of the Polovtsian ethnos, who acutely felt the need for centralized power in the face of external threats.
The first battle with the Polovtsy ended very successfully for the Russians, however, the next day the Polovtsy surrounded the Russian army and captured the wounded Igor, along with other princes and the remnants of the army. Researchers who consider these battles as an interethnic conflict tend to hush up the friendly relations between Konchak and Igor, which were not at all overshadowed during these battles. Meanwhile, the facts are increasingly prompting researchers to talk about this friendship. So, for example, A. L. Nikitin in the article “Igor's Campaign: Poetry and Reality” suggested that the campaign of Prince Igor in 1185 was not at all conceived as a military one. Based on the fact that this campaign led to the marriage of Igor's son to Konchak's daughter, A. L. Nikitin believes that the campaign was actually an element of the wedding ceremony, and the description in the "Word ..." of the first battle of Igor's troops with the Polovtsy, which ended in a surprisingly easy victory, "in historical reality ... corresponds to the usual dramatization of kidnapping the bride" [Nikitin, 1984, p. 132]. The next day after the beginning of the wedding ceremony, the Russians were completely unexpectedly attacked by other, hostile Polovtsy, led by Gzak; Konchak arrived in time to save his matchmaker, taking him on bail. Thus, the plot “at that time ... widespread in courtly literature” was reflected [Ibid. S. 181]. B. A. Rybakov was also forced to state: “Summing up all the facts and considerations, we must say that we have no data on Igor’s hostility towards Konchak, as well as on Konchak’s hostile actions against his faithful (since 1180) ally and matchmaker Igor. If we summarize the signs of friendly relations in 1185 between Konchak and Igor, then we get the following.
Igor did not attack Konchak's yurts.
Konchak did not organize Igor's entourage.
Konchak was one of the last to arrive at Kayala, when the Russian camp was already surrounded.
On the battlefield, Konchak "vouched" for Igor, captured by the Targolovites (ransomed him?), As for his matchmaker, the father of Konchakovna's fiancé.
After the victory over the Seversky regiments, Konchak refused to participate in the defeat of the disarmed Seversky principality.
Konchak provided Igor with a free and comfortable life in captivity.
After Igor's escape from captivity, Konchak refused to shoot his son as a hostage.
The agreement to marry Vladimir Igorevich to Konchakovna came true: by 1187 Igor and Konchak had a common grandson. Probably, for this wedding and preliminary baptism of the pagan Konchakovna, Igor the captive needed a priest with an clergy" [Rybakov, 1991, p. 84-85]. The idea that Konchak redeemed Prince Igor finds confirmation in the "Word ...". This will be shown in the analysis of Svyatoslav's dream.
The idea of consolidating the Polovtsian ethnic group by establishing its hegemony in the Steppe could seem quite real to Konchak after becoming acquainted with the policy pursued by the Russian princes, in which he actively participated. The idea to attract representatives of another ethnic group to establish his hegemony was also suggested to him by the practice of the great Russian princes. Thus, the idea that Konchak led the Russian regiments on the Gzak horde should not seem far-fetched. It should also be taken into account that Gzak was in close family ties with Rurik Rostislavovich, co-ruler of Svyatoslav in Kyiv. The defeat of Gzak increased the political weight of the Olgoviches, and not only in the Steppe.
The Polovtsian khans were vitally interested in having agents of influence in the Russian camp for a great many reasons. With the help of such agents, it was possible not only to avoid a surprise attack by the Russian army, but also to expose their competitors to the blow of the coalition of Russian princes and their steppe allies. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that among the steppes it was not customary to keep relatives in captivity. Accounting for this kind of realities allowed the authoritative researcher of the "Words ..." A. N. Robinson to suggest that the escape of Prince Igor was "not an arbitrary and random action, but a purposeful act that is part of the peace agreement between the prince and the khan" [Robinson, 1928, p. 148-154]. The pursuit of the Polovtsy for Prince Igor, described in the "Word ...", as well as mentioned in the Laurentian Chronicle, had, according to A. N. Robinson, a purely "demonstrative" character. The rumors that the Polovtsians were going to kill the Russian princes were far-fetched, and the concern that sounds in the dialogue of the Polovtsian khans, galloping on the trail of Prince Igor, was also invented: “Already a falcon flies to the nest, and all the falcons are entangled with a red maiden.” And the speech of Gzak to Konchakov: if they entangle him with a red maiden, neither we will be a falcon, nor we will be red to the maiden, then the birds will begin to beat in the Polovtsian field. The fact is that this concern did not prevent the Polovtsy from releasing their son Igor with his young wife to Russia, and this was done without any staging.
The idea that the escape of Prince Igor is the result of a separate conspiracy with the Polovtsians is shared by an increasing number of researchers. For example, the famous archaeologist S. A. Pletneva shares the views of A. N. Robinson and B. A. Rybakov on the relationship between Igor and Konchak. She admits that Konchak “reasonably disposed of the results of the victory”: he ransomed Igor, attacked the possessions of his enemy, Vladimir Glebovich, married his daughter to Igor’s son, and also “created conditions for Igor’s escape from captivity” in order to acquire a reliable ally not only in face of Igor himself, but also of his entire family [Pletneva, 1986, p. 46]. Both the author of The Lay and his contemporaries were well aware that it was not the Polovtsy that Igor feared at all, deciding to return to Russia. Ignoring the brewing scandal, it makes no sense to discuss the reason for the appearance, as well as the ideological orientation of the "Word ...".
In 912. The attitude towards this person from historians is ambiguous. However, this does not diminish his achievements. Even having failed in the 1st Byzantine campaign, he did not give up, but consistently brought the matter to an end.
Oleg, ruling for a long time, forced to respect Kievan Rus. After his death, Igor, who ascended the throne, decided to continue his former policy. However, it was not so easy, since the young prince had not yet managed to gain sufficient authority. This could only be achieved by decisive campaigns.
The main campaigns of Prince Igor are presented in the table.
Trip to the Caspian
Oleg was still planning this campaign, but death interfered with his plans. Igor performed them, however, unsuccessfully. To get to the territory of the Caspian peoples, they had to walk to Taurida and board 50 ships in Chersonese. Having passed through the Cimmerian Strait and the Khazar Sea, the ships came to the mouth of the Tanais. Further lay the territory of Khazaria. In order to obtain permission to pass, an agreement was concluded with them, on the basis of which half of the future production was to be given away on the way back.
The campaign was successful, the Caspian peoples were ruined. However, further trouble began. The Khazars did not want to be content with half the state and demanded all the booty. As a result, a bloody battle ensued. 5,000 Russians were opposed by 15,000 Muslim troops. Having lost 4,000 thousand warriors in the battle, Igor managed to escape. First, he went up the Volga on a ship, and then walked the rest of the way. The surviving part of the production did not pay off all the costs of the campaign.
Pacification of the Drevlyans
The Drevlyans who paid tribute to Russia did not see great strength in the new prince. To free themselves from such dependence, the people rebelled. Urgent action was required. This is the campaign of Prince Igor. happened in 914. The rebellion was brutally suppressed. As a result, the Drevlyans did not get rid of the tribute. Moreover, fees have increased significantly. In the future, on their part, more riots did not resume.
The fight against the Pechenegs
The Pechenegs, being a nomadic people, lived in the steppes of Eurasia. The drought at the end of the 9th century forced them to move to the western regions, where they raided settled settlements. Kievan Rus was no exception. Attacks of starving nomads caused devastation and death of people who defended their property.
According to the records of The Tale of Bygone Years, the reaction of Prince Igor came in 920. And it was just a campaign, and not protection from raids. Unfortunately, the chronicles of this event have not survived to our times. However, subsequent facts speak of a successful outcome of the campaign.
Over the next 2 generations, no aggression was shown by the Pechenegs, and in fact their places of residence were only 1 day's march away.
Confrontation with Byzantium
An important stage in the life of Igor were campaigns against Byzantium. After the death of Oleg, the Byzantine state stopped paying tribute to Kievan Rus, considering itself free from previous obligations. To return the receipts to the treasury of the previous income, it was necessary to make 2 trips.
First trip to Byzantium
It took place in 941. He was preceded by serious preparation. If at one time Oleg was able to put up 2,000 ships in his campaign against Byzantium, now a flotilla of 10,000 units has been assembled.
The path of the ships lay first through the Dnieper, and then along the Black Sea. Approaching Constantinople, part of the army was transferred to land. However, preparations were in full swing on the part of Byzantium. A battle ensued on land, in which the Greeks were victorious.
The next battle took place at sea. Having blocked the strait, a Byzantine squadron came out to meet the Russians. Having approached the right distance, the Greeks used a novelty called "Greek fire". This mixture, consisting of oil, saltpeter, resin sulfur and a number of other components, set fire to everything in its path that it touched. She did not rot in the water.
The Russians could not resist this, they had to leave the battlefield and return to Kyiv.
Second campaign against Byzantium
The second trip took place 2 years later. This time, Igor took mercenary units as allies, where, in addition to the Russians and the Varangians, the following people were present:
- clearing;
- slovenes;
- krivichi;
- Pechenegs;
- Tivertsy.
The army that marched out was larger than the one that took part in the first campaign. Movement simultaneously went by sea and land. The forewarned opponent did not dare to join the battle. Negotiations began.
After some hesitation on the part of Prince Igor, a peace treaty was concluded. Perhaps this was facilitated by the mood in the army. The conditions were drawn up identical to the previous agreements.
As a result of the second campaign against Byzantium, the main goal was achieved without bloodshed: the former tribute was placed on the Greek state.
The results of the military activities of Prince Igor
Summing up the campaigns of Prince Igor, it should be noted that not always everything went well. Victories alternated with defeats. However, it cannot be taken away that Igor constantly sought to fill the treasury, sincerely wishing the prosperity of Kievan Rus.
Until 912, Kievan Rus was ruled by Prince Oleg on behalf of Igor, since the latter was still very young. Being modest by nature and upbringing, Igor respectfully treated his elders and did not dare to claim his rights to the throne during the life of Oleg, who for his deeds surrounded his name with a halo of glory. Prince Oleg approved the choice of a wife for the future ruler. Prince Igor of Kyiv married in 903 a simple girl, Olga, who lived near Pskov.
Beginning of the reign
After Oleg died, Igor became a full-fledged prince of Russia. His reign began with a war. At this time, the tribe of the Drevlyans decided to get out of the power of Kyiv and an uprising began. The new ruler severely punished the rebels, inflicting a crushing defeat on them. This battle began numerous campaigns of Prince Igor. The result of the campaign against the Drevlyans was the unconditional victory of Russia, which, as a winner, demanded additional tribute from the rebels. The following campaigns were aimed at confronting the Pechenegs, who, having driven the Ugor tribes from the Urals, continued their advance to the West. The Pechenegs, in the fight against Kievan Rus, occupied the lower reaches of the Dnieper River, thereby blocking the trade opportunities of Russia, since it was through the Dnieper that the path from the Varangians to the Greeks passed. The campaigns conducted by Prince Igor against the Polovtsy were carried out with alternate success.
Campaigns to Byzantium
Despite the ongoing confrontation with the Polovtsians, new wars continue. In 941, Igor declares war on Byzantium, thereby continuing the foreign policy of his predecessors. The reason for the new war was that after the death of Oleg, Byzantium considered itself free from previous obligations and ceased to fulfill the terms of the peace treaty. The campaign against Byzantium was truly outstanding. It was the first time that such a large army was advancing on the Greeks. The Kyiv ruler took with him about 10,000 ships, according to the chroniclers, which is 5 times more than the army with which Oleg won. But this time the Russians failed to take the Greeks by surprise, they managed to gather a large army and won the first battle on land. As a result, the Russians decided to win the war by naval battles. But that didn't work either. Byzantine ships, using a special incendiary mixture, began to burn Russian ships with oil. Russian wars were simply amazed by this weapon and perceived it as heavenly. The army had to return to Kyiv.
Two years later, in 943, Prince Igor organizes a new campaign against Byzantium. This time the army was even larger. In addition to the Russian troops, mercenary detachments were invited, which consisted of Pechenegs and Varangians. The army moved to Byzantium by sea and by land. New campaigns promised to be successful. But the surprise attack failed. Representatives of the city of Chersonesos managed to report to the Byzantine emperor that a new large Russian army was advancing on Constantinople. This time the Greeks decided to avoid fighting and proposed a new peace treaty. Prince Igor of Kyiv, after conferring with his retinue, accepted the terms of the peace treaty, which were identical to the terms of the treaty signed by the Byzantines with Oleg. This ended the Byzantine campaigns.
End of the reign of Prince Igor
According to the records in the annals, in November 945, Igor gathered a squad and moved to the Drevlyans to collect tribute. Having collected tribute, he released most of the troops and with a small squad went to the city Iskorosten. The purpose of this visit was to demand tribute for himself personally. The Drevlyans were outraged and planned murder. Having armed the army, they set off towards the prince with his retinue. This is how the murder of the Kiev ruler happened. His body was buried near Iskorosten. According to legend, the murder was extremely brutal. He was tied hand and foot to bent trees. Then the trees were released... Thus ended the reign of Prince Igor...
