Poles (self-name Polatsi). They belong to the western branch of the Slavic peoples. The main population of Poland. 73 thousand people live in Russia (according to the 2002 census).
Language - Polish. Writing is based on Latin script.
Believing Poles are mostly Catholics, with some Protestants.
Poles appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. at the end of the “Time of Troubles” and the expulsion of Polish troops from Russia. They took part in the development of Siberia. From the middle of the 17th century. The social composition of Polish migrants was constantly changing. Initially, these were Smolensk and Polotsk gentry who swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar and entered the military service class. Traces of their stay in the Southern Urals (at least in Ufa) are visible. A striking episode in the history of the Urals was the stay of exiled Confederates here. The captured Confederates were exiled to the cities of the Urals, some of them became privates in the Orenburg separate corps. They left a noticeable mark on the development of local culture and the formation of European standards of life.
The influx of exiles especially increased after the Polish national liberation uprisings of 1830-1831 and 1863-1864. In 1865, in the cities of the Orenburg and Ufa provinces there were 485 people under police supervision. In addition, some of the exiles were located in the villages of Chelyabinsk and Ufa districts. The Poles, exiled to the Urals in the 19th century, continued the traditions established by their predecessors: they served as doctors, teachers, scientists, and musicians. Due to the lack of educated people in the province, local authorities were forced to allow exiles to work in various institutions. U. Rodzevich served in the Orenburg provincial government. In Verkhneuralsk A. Lipinitsky served as a clerk, 244 in the Orenburg Treasury Chamber - R. Sharlovsky. The teachers were I. Rodzevich, V. Kosko, A. Shumovsky, E. Strashinsky. Many Poles made their living by crafts: carpentry, shoemaking, saddlery, and tailoring. The Poles actively integrated into the local environment. They established contacts not only with Russians, but also with representatives of indigenous peoples.
Poles appeared in the Southern Urals not only as exiles. Many of them voluntarily chose the Urals as their place of residence. With the start of construction of the West Siberian Railway in Chelyabinsk, the contingent of the Polish population increased significantly. Poles served as engineers, technicians, foremen, accountants, and bookkeepers. The construction manager was K.Ya. Mikhailovsky; among the administrative and management personnel of the road V.M. Pavlovsky, A.V. Live-
Rovsky, A.F. Zdziarski, Shtukenberg brothers. According to statistical data, there was an increase in the Catholic population in Chelyabinsk: in 1863 - 23 people, in 1897 - 255, in 1910 - 1864.
The increase in the number of Poles in the Southern Urals is evidenced quite eloquently by the facts of the construction of Catholic churches - churches. The first such temple was built in Orenburg. In 1898, a wooden church was opened in Chelyabinsk. In 1909, construction of a stone church began.
Settling in new lands, the Poles quite often assimilated through marriages, converted to Orthodoxy, and lost their ethnic roots. However, the spread of traditional Polish surnames among the old-timers of the Southern Urals reliably preserves the trace of this people in regional history.
Germans (self-name Deutsche). The main population of Germany. According to the 2002 census, 597 thousand people live in Russia, 28,457 people live in the Chelyabinsk region.
Language - German (Germanic group of the Indo-European language family).
Religious affiliation - Christianity (mainly Catholics and Lutherans, as well as a small
number of Protestants: Baptists, Adventists, Mennonites, Pentecostals).
The ancestors of Russian Germans moved to the country at different times and from different places. The influx of Germans into Russia especially intensified under Peter I and his successors. These were artisans, merchants, scientists, and military men. The Germans took an active part in the colonization of uninhabited territories of Russia, including the Southern Urals. This was facilitated by the overpopulation of German lands. In Russia, all immigrants from the northern lands (depending on the political situation) were called Swedes, Germans or Saxons. According to pre-revolutionary census documents, they were also distinguished on the basis of their confession - German settlers to Russia were predominantly Lutherans.
The Russian name “Germans” meant those who did not understand the Russian language, those who were dumb. The number of Germans definitely included Swedes and Dutch, among the latter Ivan Andreevich Reyensdorp and Pavel Petrovich Sukhtelen, two governors of the Orenburg region. The name of their compatriot, the founder of the Yekaterinburg fortress and plant (1723) - Georg Wilhelm de Genin, an outstanding specialist in the field of fortification and mining and metallurgy, lieutenant general of artillery - is well known in the Urals. He was invited to Russian service in 1697. For 12 years he was the manager of state-owned factories in the Urals and Siberia. De Gennin was engaged not only in organizing metallurgical and military production, but also in scientific activities. He collected material for a book about Ural and Siberian factories and was seriously interested in antiquities. The scientist collected a large collection of archaeological objects, descriptions and drawings of which were included in the book (first published in Russian in 1937). The materials in this book have attracted the attention of specialists to this day.
The construction of factories and the organization of military service in border fortresses attracted a significant number of foreign employees of the Lutheran faith to the Southern Urals. In the middle of the 18th century. There was already a Lutheran parish in Orenburg. To serve the spiritual needs of the parishioners, according to the proposal of Governor Abraham Putyatin, Catherine II, by decree of November 16, 1767, ordered the “establishment” of the position of a divisional preacher in Orenburg. The first preacher Philip Wernburger arrived in Orenburg on March 12, 1768. Here in 1776 the first Lutheran church (kirch) of St. Catherine in the province was illuminated. Funds for the construction of the church were collected from Lutheran parishes in Russia. Governor Reijensdorp provided great support. Subsequent repairs and reconstruction of the building were carried out with the assistance of the state treasury. Representatives of various faiths took part in collecting funds for bells for this church (1895-1897): a third of the amount was collected by the Germans, the rest by Russian merchants. The entire staff of Lutheran field and divisional preachers was supported by funds from the Ministry of the Interior. The government during the 18th-19th centuries. demonstrated a loyal policy towards non-believers, and primarily towards Lutherans. The situation changed during the First World War.
Simultaneously with the parishes for the military, parishes for the civilian population arose in the Southern Urals. In the first half of the 19th century. One of the largest German diasporas formed in Zlatoust. In 1811, the position of a Lutheran preacher was established here. The parish increased significantly after a factory for the production of bladed weapons was opened in 1815 in Zlatoust. Under a contract concluded by the manager of the Zlatoust factories, G. Eversman, a group of gunsmiths from a private factory in Solingen arrived in the Southern Urals, which by this time had stopped working. By 1818, there were 115 German craftsmen in Zlatoust (together with families - 450 people). In 1849, when its own school of gunsmiths had already been formed, the factory retained privileges for 102 craftsmen.
The founders of the Zlatoust school of decorated weapons were
Wilhelm-Nikolai Schaf and his son Ludwig. Weapon masters settled in the Urals under conditions that were extremely favorable to them. They were given the right to be tried in their own court, to have a school, a church and a club. In the 1880s (after the demand of German Chancellor Bismarck to return to their homeland), the majority of Germans of the Zlatoust diaspora chose to accept Russian citizenship. Visited Zlatoust in the 20s of the XIX century. editor of "Domestic Notes" P.P. Svinin left enthusiastic memories of the city, presenting it as “a corner of Germany transferred to the Ural Mountains.”
The growth of the urban German population was evidenced by the opening of a new parish in Troitsk (1872).
After the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in the Southern Urals, the network of rural German settlements expanded significantly (primarily due to the relocation of Mennonite colonies from the south of Russia). Mennonites are followers of one of the Protestant movements. At the end of the 19th century. Three Mennonite settlements arose in the Southern Urals: Novo-Samarskoye, Orenburgskoye and Davlekanovskoye. The Mennonites organized highly productive and technically equipped agricultural production.
The population census of 1897 showed that a total of 1,790.5 thousand people lived in Russia; in the Orenburg province - 70% of the total German population of the Urals, which amounted to 5,457 people. Of these, 689 people lived in cities, and 4,768 in counties. Another flow of Germans to the Southern Urals is associated with the agrarian reforms of P. Stolypin (early 20th century). The Germans moved to the Urals in the general mass of migrants.
In Chelyabinsk, the Germans primarily had the opportunity to engage in trading activities. If in 1894 there were 34 Lutherans here, then in 1911 their number reached 497. In 1906, the General Consistory discussed the issue of allocating an independent parish for them in Chelyabinsk. However, the church was never built in the city. 248
The spread of education and literacy is associated with the appearance of Germans in the Urals. In 1735, on the initiative of the head of the state-owned factories of the Urals V.N. Tatishchev, a German school was opened in Yekaterinburg. Its first rector was Bernhard Stermer. The school was an advanced educational institution. Children of the upper classes and management personnel of mining factories who graduated from verbal or arithmetic schools or home schooling were sent to it. The school doors were not closed to the children of craftsmen and factory workers. Along with reading, writing, German grammar and translations, the educational institution taught the basics of history, geography, and scripture. Knowledge of the German language, according to V.N. Tatishchev, could open Russian youth access to literature on mining, which was published mainly in German. A library of books, magazines and newspapers was created at the school. The educational institution trained a large number of translators who were sent to foreign specialists in the Urals and Siberia.
According to the 1897 census, in the Orenburg province about 70% of the total German population was literate. About a third of the male population could read Russian, and the same amount could read German. German women knew German literacy better. At this time, children in German families preferred to be taught in Russian.
Over the course of many centuries of life among the Russian population, the Germans not only actively integrated into Russian culture, but also themselves were subjected to assimilation (Russianization), without losing their ethnic identity. The high level of literacy, the presence among the Germans of qualified artisans (shoemakers, tailors, watchmakers), and narrow specialists (healers, pharmacists, etc.) created respect for them in society. In the 20th century The life of Germans in Russia lost its former status and stability. In 1930-1940 The Germans gained autonomy - the German Volga Republic was created.
But during the Great Patriotic War, the Germans became outcasts. The Republic was abolished. About 1 million people were deported to Kazakhstan, the Urals and Siberia. After the end of the war until 1956, the Germans were under police surveillance. In 1964 they were partially rehabilitated. Since 1979, the emigration of Germans to their historical homeland has intensified in Russia. According to the 1926 census, the number of Germans in Russia was 1238.5 thousand people, in 1989 - 842.3 thousand.
On the territory of Russia, the Germans usually lived in isolation from other ethnic groups, which allowed them to preserve ethnic traditions. However, the culture of Russian Germans differs significantly from German culture itself. This is due to two factors. Firstly, by the time the first settlers appeared in Russia, there was no single German culture (Germany was divided into more than 300 independent principalities). The German ethnos and culture still had to go through a stage of formation. Secondly, living in completely new environmental conditions, the Germans adapted to them. This applied to building materials, the composition of the herd, the range of cultivated crops, etc. In Russia there was a process of formation of the German subethnic group, which was reflected in its names: “Russian Germans”, “Soviet Germans”. Among the features of subethnic culture, attention should be paid to the low level of urbanization. According to the 1926 census, it was 14.9%. Russian Germans were mainly rural residents. Urban Germans differed significantly from other ethnic groups in their demographic behavior. They were characterized by late marriages and low birth rates. This model of behavior was formed in Western Europe already in the 15th century.
Jews are a general ethnic name for peoples that historically go back to the ancient Jews. The main population of Israel. They live in different countries.
Language - Hebrew, Yiddish, languages of the countries where they live.
Religion - Judaism.
They appeared in Chelyabinsk in the middle of the 19th century. These were soldiers with 25 years of active service, graduates of schools of military musicians (cantonists). In 1840 there were 40 people, in 2000 - 4.4 thousand. In the 1990s, about 50% of Jews emigrated.
Before the revolution, they lived in the city on the basis of a temporary permit document, since their main place of residence was determined by the Jewish Pale of Settlement, introduced in 1791. Due to the fact that Jews did not have the right to own land, houses (with the exception of retired soldiers and people with average special and higher education), most of them in Chelyabinsk at the end of the 19th century. consisted of retired soldiers and non-commissioned officers. In addition, boys from Jewish families, sent to military schools and forcibly converted to Orthodoxy, often remained in the places where they retired after studying and long service. Mostly Jews were engaged in trade, medicine, as well as jewelry, publishing, pharmacy, sewing, and baking.
The increase in the Jewish population began at the beginning of the 20th century. and was associated with the temporary abolition of the Pale of Settlement (during the First World War, the government allowed Jewish refugees to live in the Urals and Siberia), and the industrial growth of the city. The growth in numbers was also facilitated by the outflow of the Jewish population from the western regions of Russia due to pogroms (several people died in Chelyabinsk during the Jewish pogrom of 1905). This was indirectly facilitated by the launch of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Children studied in cheder (primary schools), in a Jewish school, within the framework of the five percent norm in a real school, a gymnasium, and a trade school. The center of social and religious life of Jews in Chelyabinsk was the synagogue (Jewish temple), built in 1900-1905. It was under her that a Jewish school and a society to help poor Jews, and later refugees who arrived in Chelyabinsk during the First World War, were opened. The Jewish community patronized the families of the defenders of the Fatherland.
The October Revolution of 1917 changed the social composition of Jews. Representatives of large and medium-sized capital emigrated. In connection with the liquidation of Jewish societies (1917), the prohibition and confiscation of books in Hebrew (1919), the confiscation of all silver items from the synagogue (1921), and then the closure of Jewish schools and the synagogue (1929), national traditions also changed. The weakening of national-religious traditions contributed to the rapid assimilation of Jews. This was facilitated by familiarization with Soviet culture and mixed marriages. At the same time, the new government allowed Jews to study in higher educational institutions and participate in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the city.
During the period of industrialization of the 1920-1930s. Jews contributed to the creation of a new society: they worked on the construction of factories, in party and government bodies (ChTZ director A. Bruskin, chief engineer I.Ya. Nesterovsky, construction manager of the ChGRES Ya.D. Berezin, first secretary of the Traktorozavodsky district A.M. Krichevsky and etc.). Many of them became victims of repression in the second half of the 1930s.
During the Great Patriotic War, the number of Jews increased due to those evacuated, but decreased in the post-war years: many returned to their old place of residence. At the end of the 1940s. Almost all Jews were removed from leadership positions. In 1953, 10 heads of departments at the medical institute were arrested in the “doctors’ case.” In the 1990s. The revival of the religious and national-cultural life of the Jewish population began: the synagogue was returned, Jewish schools and a library were opened, and public organizations were created.
Irina Antropova is a historian-archivist, researcher of the history of the Jews of the Urals, author of a number of scientific and popular publications on this topic, including the 2004 “Collection of documents on the history of the Jews of the Urals from the funds of institutions of the pre-Soviet period of the State Archives of the Sverdlovsk Region".
At the end of the 18th century. As a result of the three partitions of Poland, a million-strong Jewish population joined the ranks of the subjects of the Russian Empire. Over the next two hundred years, Jews in Russia were subjected to open discrimination, served as an object for various government experiments, the hatred of the crowd, skillfully directed by the same government, the envy of ordinary people and religious intolerance1. Since 1791, the so-called Pale of Settlement was established (it included the newly annexed western provinces), outside of which Jews were forbidden to live. The Russian government periodically denied them access to the civil service and some free professions, established a percentage norm for admission to higher educational institutions and gymnasiums, from time to time deprived them of voting rights in elections at various levels, and severely punished those who, having converted to Orthodoxy (even under duress) , decided to return to Judaism, condoned the organization of Jewish pogroms.
The Urals are a mining region; on the Ural lands there were many “strategically important objects”: mines, gold mines, mining factories. All this significantly influenced the situation of the Jews. In addition, the south of the Urals, according to the government, was considered a place unacceptable for Jews to live in, since in the first half of the 19th century. the Orenburg fortified line passed there, separating the Russian Empire from the tribal associations of the Kazakhs. Ekaterinburg, while remaining the status of a district city of the Perm province, was at the same time the center of the entire mining Urals, where the management bodies of mining plants were concentrated (from Votkinsk to Tyumen). The residence of the Chief Director of the Ural Mining Plants and a number of production facilities of primary importance were located in Yekaterinburg: a cutting factory, a mint, a laboratory for melting non-ferrous metals, etc. By prohibiting Jews from appearing in the Urals (an area that was not part of the Pale of Settlement), the government placed its main emphasis on prohibiting the presence of Jews in mining factories and mines. However, representatives of the local mining administration were tolerant of Jewish employees at the factories. Moreover, it happened that enterprise managers stood up to the authorities on behalf of their Jewish engineers, trying to prevent their dismissal. In the worst position were artisans, merchants (we are not talking about the first guild merchants, who had the opportunity to quickly resolve misunderstandings that arose) and small traders, since they were “under the jurisdiction” of the Perm governor and his officials, who, according to the testimony of the famous local historian V.S. Verkholantsev, “we tried to imitate our superiors to the best of our ability and avoid what our superiors did not like.”
In addition, the Urals was a multinational and multi-religious region. The Russians colonized it relatively late. Exiles of all stripes have long lived here, criminals from Siberia fled here, schismatics settled here. The Orthodox were tolerant of various religions and sects. In such a mixture of nationalities and religions, little attention was paid to the small handful of Jews. Therefore, the small Jewish population lived peacefully with the rest of the inhabitants and extreme manifestations of anti-Semitism were not observed in the Urals until October 1905.
Speaking about the first appearance of Jews in the Urals, we note that Nikita Demidov in his industrial development of the region was patronized by Peter the Great's vice-chancellor Pyotr Shafirov, about whom ill-wishers said that “he wears a skull cap under his wig.” It was he who argued for Demidov before the Tsar. (Shafirov was the son of the baptized Jew Shafir, or according to other sources Shai Sapsaev).
Until the thirties of the 19th century. There were few Jews in the Urals. A curious case is the Jew Gumprecht, who in 1805 managed a cement factory near Yekaterinburg. If we consider that Gumprecht “started out” as a major counterfeiter, for which he was captured, beaten with rods, branded and exiled to eternal settlement in Siberia, then we can say that he made a brilliant career. The tolerance of some heads of the mining administration in the Urals extended quite widely. This is confirmed by Ivan Filippovich German, who accepted Gumprecht into the service. During the war with Napoleon, Jews suspected (often based on denunciations) of espionage were sent to the Orenburg province. However, it happened that the authors of the slander themselves were exiled. So, in 1823, false informers Leiba Gershkovich and Itsik Moshkovich arrived in Perm, remaining in the Urals even after serving their sentences.
Despite the fact that there is no clear evidence of the existence of a settled Jewish population in the Urals before the 1830s. no, Emperor Alexander I, after traveling through the Urals in 1824, issued a decree prohibiting Jews from even temporary stay in state-owned and private factories, as well as in Yekaterinburg itself. The detailed hourly reports of Alexander's trip do not mention the specific reason that led to the appearance of such a decree. There is an assumption that the culprit is the Jewish merchant who caught the eye of the emperor - a rather mythologized and infernal figure (a kind of Ahasferus - where and when were there no Jewish merchants?). It is also possible that someone filed a complaint against a Jewish neighbor who turned out to be more successful in business. Be that as it may, Alexander, by that time pretty tired of fruitless attempts to “lead the children of Israel to the right path” through the Society of Israeli Christians, issued the aforementioned decree. Moreover, the decree was not included in the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire, but was simply sent to the Perm berg inspector for execution “secretly” and, given that the legislation on Jews was “gaining momentum” every year, it should have quickly lost the force of law. However, throughout the entire 19th century, that same decree of Alexander served as the basis for prohibitory circulars of the central authorities and orders of local (not only Ural) authorities.
The first truly mass appearance of Jews in the Urals is associated with the notorious decree of Tsar Nicholas I of 1827 on the introduction of military service for Jews. In addition to ordinary conscripts, cantonists began to be recruited from Jews - boys 12 years old (and in fact, starting from eight). They were sent to serve in special battalions far from their homes. Upon reaching the age of 18, cantonists were sent to a “real” 25-year military service. This tragedy, which “gave” the Urals the first Jewish communities, lasted almost 30 years (the institute of cantonists for Jews was abolished in 1856). Without going into details of the dramatic collisions, well and in detail described in old literature and the latest journalism, we will only say that the number of cantonists increased from year to year and by 1843, 1812 Jewish teenagers served in the Ural battalions (Perm, Orenburg, Troitsky). The purpose of attracting Jews to serve military service was not only their acculturation in the Russian environment, but also an attempt by a variety of means - moral and physical “exhortation” - to achieve the transition of young people to Orthodoxy. In the Perm battalion, the baptism of Jewish cantonists was carried out so successfully that children who did not respond to the instructions of army missionaries were transferred here from other battalions. The military commander of Danchevsky and Perm Archbishop Arkady put forward their own new methods of conversion, often far from the unctuous instructions described in official reports, and more than once received the highest attention and awards. Needless to say, many cantonists subsequently returned to the faith of their fathers.
In 1836, thirteen-year-old Pincus Raichik was baptized in the Perm battalion, who became Mikhail Afanasyev, later a famous poet, Perm chronicler of the turn of the century. There were also cases of adult soldiers accepting baptism - in this case deliberately, because... an unbaptized person could not advance in rank above non-commissioned officer. It should be noted that apostasy among adults was rare, despite the benefits acquired by converts.
In the early 1840s. On the site of the city churchyard of Perm, where Jewish cantonists were buried, the city's first Jewish cemetery arose. In Yekaterinburg, the founding of the Jewish cemetery dates back, according to some sources, to the 30s, according to others - to the 40s. XIX century (even the name of its “founder” is known - Yitzchok Lansberg). It was the cemeteries that provided the first material evidence of the existence of the rudiments of Jewish communities in the Urals. During these same years, in military battalions, or more precisely, in the settlements and cities where they were stationed, Jewish prayer houses officially permitted by the authorities appeared, reserved for military personnel of the Jewish faith. In 1852, police reports in Yekaterinburg first mentioned a Jewish prayer school (aka prayer house). And by the 1860s. all provincial cities of the Urals acquired so-called soldiers’ synagogues.
At the end of their service, Jewish soldiers did not have the right to live outside the Pale of Settlement, where they served. Such a right was granted to them only in 1867. But common sense still prevailed over legal structures, and “indefinite leave” settled in the places of their former service. In addition, it is very likely that from the point of view of local authorities, semi-literate, middle-aged soldiers cut off from their roots did not pose a “threat” to the Fatherland. After retiring, the Jews engaged in some simple craft, started families (brides for soldiers, usually dowryless women who had no chance of getting married in their homeland, were brought from the Pale of Settlement by shadkhens specially engaged in this2), united around prayer houses and, with permission from the authorities, in some cases they assigned themselves shochets3, and then rabbis. In 1852, police reports in Yekaterinburg first mentioned a Jewish prayer school (also known as a prayer house). And by the 1860s. all provincial cities of the Urals acquired so-called soldiers’ synagogues.
Until 1859, Jews (not military personnel) were essentially denied access beyond the Pale of Settlement. Despite the fact that the Jews were subjects of Russia, the government and a certain part of society saw them as strangers, suspected them of espionage, worldwide conspiracies, striving for kahal domination, and sometimes even of ritual actions involving the consumption of the blood of Christians and similar unthinkable and absurd intentions. And therefore, the government was especially zealous in protecting strategically important economic objects for the country - gold mines and mountain mines - from Jews. In the Urals, large-scale operations were periodically carried out to identify a few Jews and their subsequent deportation. Thus, in 1827, special orders appeared for the eviction of Jews from Orenburg, in 1828 government institutions of the Perm province were inspected, and the following year - in the Orenburg province. By the way, after the “removal” of Jews from the mining areas, the problem of the theft of gold being mined, of course, was not resolved. And since the presence of Jews in the mountainous districts was no longer allowed, the Minister of Finance this time explained the continuing theft by the increase in the number of gypsies...
Merchants, clerks and some others were allowed to temporarily travel inside Russia, but the remoteness of the Ural region from the provinces of the Pale of Settlement allowed only a few to get there. Jews were accepted into government service only with the Highest permission. Perhaps the only “Ural” example is Avraham Nasonovich Shein, who in 1844 served at the Perm factories with the rank of chargemaster4 of the 13th class. As for the common example - the collegiate assessor Alexander Dmitrievich Blank (V. Lenin’s grandfather), who served as a surgeon at Ural factories in the 40s, as is known, he converted to Orthodoxy, which radically changed his status.
The situation changed significantly after the liberal reforms of Alexander II. Restrictive laws against Jews remained, but along with them, a fairly large number of liberal ones were adopted, which at first glance somewhat softened the discrimination against Jews in Russia. The most famous and significant of them are the decrees that opened up part of the Jewish population access beyond the Pale of Settlement: in 1859 - to merchants, 1861 - to holders of academic titles, 1865 - to artisans, 1867 - to Nicholas soldiers and their descendants, 1879 - to Jews with higher education, as well as dentists, obstetricians, pharmacists, and midwives.
Jews who arrived in the Urals in the 1870-1880s. (the second wave of migration), we found here a fully established Jewish community with its own specific characteristics. The old-timers differed from their fellow tribesmen from the Pale of Settlement in a higher degree of assimilation, Russian clothing, partial or complete loss of the Yiddish language, poor knowledge of Jewish tradition and some disregard for religious precepts. In addition, their professional and social status was lower than that of newcomers. New arrivals, lacking a choice, were initially forced to visit soldiers' chapels, and this inevitably caused conflicts between them and the old-timers. According to the tradition that existed at that time, those who promised to donate more than others for community needs were awarded a call to the Torah. As a rule, they turned out to be “free” rich people and intellectuals. The former soldiers were not happy with this. Conflicts led to the fact that visitors began to found their own houses of worship. For example, in Orenburg around the 60s. XIX century Along with the existing “battalion” prayer house, there was (we do not know the exact time of its establishment) an “engineers’” house. There was also a separate prayer house for Bukharan Jews, which was later destroyed by fire and never opened again. In Perm, along with the already operating soldiers' synagogue, the so-called free synagogue was founded in 1881. Each synagogue had its own community. However, seven years later, representatives of both communities, having discussed at a meeting (in Russian, since not everyone could speak Yiddish fluently), decided to unite. And very timely, since in the depths of Russian society a force has already arisen that has turned out to be stronger than centuries-old traditions - the revolutionary movement.
The murder of the Tsar by Narodnaya Volya in 1881 caused a tightening of government policy towards Jews. In particular, in the Urals this was expressed in the establishment of total control over their stay in Yekaterinburg and at the Ural mining plants. Local authorities increasingly began to question even the legal rights of Jews to live in the region. In 1886, a decree was issued by the Minister of State Property, prohibiting Jews from serving in the mining department and blocking their access to gold mining for a decade. As a consequence of this decree, there was an order from the Chief Director of the Ural Mining Plants to identify Jews in the civil service at factories and industries for their subsequent dismissal. Judging by the reports of the district mining authorities, Jews were in the service of both state and private factories as mining engineers, clerks, mine supervisors, chemists, and field managers. (By the way, at the beginning of the 20th century, the future director of the laboratory at the Lenin Mausoleum, a professor of biochemistry, and then simply an engineer at chemical plants near Solikamsk, Boris Zbarsky and his assistant, a young factory clerk, Boris Pasternak, worked in the Urals). Of course, firing them all (and evicting some from the region) meant damaging production, which, it must be said, was not on the rise anyway. Therefore, with rare exceptions, things broke down at the correspondence stage. The artisans, who made up the bulk of the Jewish population and, unlike merchants and engineers, did not represent any special “value” in the eyes of the local authorities, were not ignored either. Despite the fact that in 1865 craftsmen were given the right to live outside the Pale of Settlement, over time it acquired a whole garland of additional and mandatory conditions. Thus, the craftsman was obliged to engage exclusively in his craft, start working no later than a month after arrival, provide evidence of a craft council to substantiate his rights, and also had to prove that his occupation was indeed a craft, etc. Let us add to this that Jews who had documents for the right of residence outside the Pale of Settlement were prohibited from living in rural areas, moving without permission even within the province (from county to county), or temporarily staying in places other than their place of registration without special permission from the police. Violation of any of these conditions threatened deportation. This entire complex system was regulated by an ugly proliferation of legislation: numerous laws, acts, orders, clarifications, which gave rise to bribery and abuse by police officials who saw Jews as a reliable source of income.
Those who managed to gain a foothold reached certain heights. The merchant families Peretz, Antselevich, Mekler, Polyakov, and Halameizer were widely known in Yekaterinburg and beyond. Perm merchant of the 1st guild Kalman Naumovich Liberman was the manager of the regional branch of the Bank for Foreign Trade and owned tobacco and building materials stores. The oldest - since 1850 - of the trading houses in Perm (ready-made clothes, cloth and fur goods) was founded by Zelik Epfelbaum. The only all-Russian bank that arose in Yekaterinburg, the Siberian Trade Bank, was founded in 1872 by Albert Soloveichik. The director of the timber industry company in Perm was the famous timber merchant S.I. Lieberman. Up to 35% of the members of the Chelyabinsk Exchange Society were Jews, many participated in the management bodies of the Chelyabinsk Exchange - the exchange committee, the exchange arbitration commission, the quotation and audit commissions.
The most famous Jewish doctors were: in Yekaterinburg - Boris Osipovich (Iosifovich) Kotelyansky (who served as the prototype for the main character of Mamin-Sibiryak’s story “The Jew”), who died at the age of 32 from typhus, having become infected from a patient during an epidemic; Dr. I. Syano is the owner of a large house on the corner of modern Liebknecht and Malyshev streets; in Perm - Maria Yakovlevna Brushtein, who combined healing with revolutionary work, N.I. Okun, the only local Jew awarded the Order of St. Stanislaus with swords, Abraham Kaufman - later a major Zionist figure; in Ufa - head of the city psychiatric hospital, hereditary nobleman Yakov Febusovich Kaplan. While dealing with the problems of forensic psychiatric examination, Kaplan died at the age of 31 at the hands of a criminal patient. There were many wonderful people among attorneys, teachers, and musicians, but the format of the essay does not allow us to talk about them in more detail.
Unfortunately, there is no description in archival materials of the life of Yekaterinburg and Ural Jews in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. There are very few documents about the community itself. We can only say with confidence that her social status has increased significantly compared to the 70-80s. XIX century The imbalance between the male and female population has disappeared. Competent, intelligent, wealthy people were promoted to the first positions. At that time, belonging to the active community was an indicator of social status rather than a matter of religiosity. In addition, activities to open a synagogue, etc. was for Jewish intellectuals part of the struggle for their civil rights. Some wealthy Jewish merchants, entrepreneurs or high-ranking officials took a direct and active part in the affairs of the Jewish community. The most striking examples are attorney David Lvovich Rassner, merchant of the 1st guild Genrikh Borisovich Peretz, timber merchant Aron Halameizer - in Yekaterinburg; merchant of the 1st guild, bank manager Kalman Lieberman and factory owner Solomon Abramovich, who was at one time the head of the soldiers' synagogue, in Perm. There were also those who donated or bequeathed part of their property to the Jewish community. For example, the Chelyabinsk merchant of the 2nd guild Solomon Bren bequeathed a plot of land that belonged to him for the construction of a synagogue. Z.L. Obukhovsky donated a new house for the Orenburg Jewish-Russian School. The manager of a large company, and then the owner of a commercial and industrial enterprise and a gold mine, chemical engineer Simon Drusvyatsky served for some time as a state rabbi in Perm, the merchants Peretz, Anzelevich, Mekler were members of the board of the Jewish community of Yekaterinburg, and largely thanks to their support, it was opened in the city house of worship.
By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. on the territory of the Ural region, prayer houses operated in all provincial cities - Perm, Orenburg, Ufa, Vyatka, in large district cities - Chelyabinsk, Yekaterinburg, Troitsk, Birsk, Sterlitamak, Zlatoust and some others. There were synagogue buildings in Perm (the wooden one, built in 1886, has not survived, the stone one was erected in 1903), Chelyabinsk (the wooden one, built in the 80s of the 19th century, has not survived, the stone one - in 1905) , Orenburg (stone - in 1871), Ufa (wooden - around 1896, stone - in 1915), Vyatka (wooden - in 1907, not preserved). In Yekaterinburg, paradoxically, there has never been a specially built synagogue building; its role was played by houses of worship located in rented premises. At the beginning of the 20th century. it was a building on the corner of Simanovskaya and Usoltsevskaya streets at number 16/52. At the beginning of 1917, the community laid the foundation for the future synagogue and purchased building materials. But after well-known events, all this was confiscated by the new authorities.
Communities quickly acquired appropriate institutions engaged in charity, in charge of issues of education, rituals and enlightenment: charitable societies (before 1906 - under the communities, after - independently), almshouses, "children's hearths", funeral brotherhoods, mutual aid funds, mikvahs, kosher meat benches, canteens, etc. In Perm at the beginning of the 20th century. On the initiative of bookbinder Ilya Ioffe (father of the famous microbiologist Vladimir Ioffe), a group of parents sent a Hebrew teacher from Ukraine and organized a modern-style home cheder6 for their children and several other students. The students even published a handwritten journal in Hebrew, Kitmei Hadyeh (Ink Spots). Hebrew teachers, due to existing legislation, sometimes had to live on false documents, most often on craft certificates. Thus, Aron Pinevich Sterin, a Hebrew teacher in Kungur, lived in the city since 1907 on the false testimony of a leather cutter, having set up a fictitious preparation workshop in his house. Traditional cheders, both home and synagogue, were gradually replaced by Jewish colleges and schools.
Ural Jews widely took part in all-Russian public life, spoke Russian, and taught children in gymnasiums. However, no matter how active the process of integration of Jews into Russian society was, the influx of new migrants to the Urals from the Pale of Settlement, which continued despite the bans, held back assimilation. And although the majority of Jews integrated into local life, the Jewish community remained fairly united, and its members retained their own ethnocultural and religious identity. This is evidenced, for example, by the extremely small number of mixed marriages between Jews and Christians, as well as the statistics of baptized Jews. There were few of them - for example, in the Perm province they made up only about one percent of the entire Jewish population. Another indicator of the preservation of ethnic identity is language. According to the 1897 census, from 85 to 97% of Jews living in the four Ural provinces named Yiddish as their native language.
The third, most massive wave of migration of the Jewish population to the Urals was caused by the First World War. Moreover, the move was not always voluntary - the government and military command pursued a policy of mass eviction of Jews (Russian citizens) from the front line, indiscriminately accusing them of political disloyalty, suspecting them of espionage and aiding the enemy. Thus, 97 families were expelled from Bialystok because their members had visited German resorts before the war. In addition to refugees and deportees, prisoners from the Austro-Hungarian and German armies were brought to the Urals, as well as so-called “military detainees” - civilian hostages captured by Russian troops on enemy territory. In June 1915, 146 Jewish Austrian subjects who had nothing to do with the hostilities were sent in freight cars to Irbit. The local district police officer, not knowing what to do, put them in prison just in case (and among them there were women, old people and children). By the end of the summer of 1915, a significant part of the so-called Pale of Settlement was occupied by the enemy, and the Russian government was nevertheless forced to allow Jews to temporarily reside in the internal provinces. It cannot be said that the local authorities were happy about this turn of events. The Orenburg governor even ordered police officials to keep lists of Jews “for the future,” especially noting refugees and foreign nationals. According to the Jewish Committee for Relief to War Victims (EKOPO), the number of Jewish refugees in all four Ural provinces amounted to 6,731 people on November 4, 1915. Let us note that the spy mania that worsened during the war came from government circles - Jews were often accused of speculation, agitation against the Tsar, etc., official reports spoke of the growing discontent of the local population (for example, in Orenburg and Chelyabinsk). However, in reality there was no particular discontent - the difficulties of the war were not associated by local residents with Jews. And the government's initial fears - whether the influx of refugees would cause pogroms - were not justified.
Before October 1917, pogroms occurred in the Urals only once. They were not caused by an “initiative from below,” but became part of a “wave” launched by the authorities that swept across all of Russia. We are talking about the pogroms of October 1905. Events developed according to a single scenario developed by the police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs: after the promulgation of the tsar’s manifesto “On the Improvement of State Order,” protest demonstrations by supporters of left-wing parties and those dissatisfied with the manifesto took place everywhere. In counterbalance, the “patriots” organized processions and religious processions with flags and banners (and at the same time with clubs and sticks captured “just in case”), which soon turned into clashes with left-wing demonstrators, and then into pogroms. The drunken mob beat up not only Jews, but also students, high school students, and intellectuals. In Ufa, four people were killed, including a Jew, Matvey Rukker; in Yekaterinburg, two young men of Russian nationality were killed, and thirteen were seriously wounded. In Vyatka, random Russian citizens became victims of the crowd. The most brutal pogrom took place in Chelyabinsk - according to various sources, 10 people were killed (three of them Russians who defended Jews), 38 Jewish apartments, 16 shops and shops were looted.
Of course, even before these events, there were publications of anti-Semitic content on the pages of local and all-Russian publications distributed in the Ural cities, and a little later branches of the Black Hundred Union of the Russian People and anti-Semitic leaflets appeared, trying to create an image of the Jew as the culprit of all troubles. But still, in the Urals, Judeophobia was not inherent in the mass consciousness. However, the tragedy was not that the so-called “conductors of evil” appeared. The trouble was different: unfortunately, many ordinary people easily, even if for a short time, took their side.
Discrimination and pogroms led to the fact that part of the Jewish population emigrated from Russia, and the other part - the younger generation - joined the ranks of the revolutionary movement, joining the Bund or all-Russian socialist parties. Everyone is well aware (at least by street names) of the names of Sverdlov, Weiner, Goloshchekin, Sheinkman, Sosnovsky, Zwilling, and Yurovsky, so “beloved” by anti-Semites. Thus, one may get the misleading impression that in the Urals Jews took the most active part in the Bolshevik organizations. Without explaining the reasons for this situation, we will only say that in fact, Jews most actively joined the ranks of the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, and young people who did not want to break with their Jewish roots gave preference to the Bund and Poalei Zion parties. I.V. Narsky, having analyzed data on four thousand members of various parties in the Urals (2/3 of them are socialist) from the documents of the Special Department of the Fund of the Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (stored in the State Archive of the Russian Federation), came to the conclusion that among the Ural Social Democrats, Jews accounted for 9 %, among the Socialist Revolutionaries - 6%, among the liberal-radical Cadets - 2%. Speaking about the latter, it is worth mentioning Lev Afanasyevich Krol, the constant leader of the Ural Cadets and a member of the party’s Central Committee. Being a fairly large entrepreneur, Krol was part of the leadership of the Ural Military-Industrial Committee during the First World War. He actively fought against Bolshevism and Soviet power, in 1918 he headed the regional provisional government of the Urals, and later was a member of the Amur People's Assembly. Just before emigrating to Paris, he published in Vladivostok an interesting book of memoirs about the three post-revolutionary years. In general, the personal stories of revolutionary figures of those years are very interesting and almost always tragic. Many of them either died during the civil war, or were later shot by the Soviet authorities, sent into exile, died in poverty, like Lev Gerstein, some committed suicide, like David Hansburg. Some were helped to avoid a similar fate by natural causes, such as the death of Sverdlov from the Spanish flu or Yurovsky from cancer.
The Jews, unlike other peoples, besides revolution and religion, had one more alternative to Russian reality. While some wanted to correct society and change the existing system here, others dreamed of a kingdom of justice “there” - at the white walls of Jerusalem. The Zionist movement, which arose at the end of the 19th century, quickly grew stronger and, despite, or perhaps thanks to, the prohibitions, gained great popularity. The very first Zionist organization in the Urals arose in Perm - shortly after the first Zionist congress in Basel in 1897. The number of its members by 1900 amounted to approximately 10% of the entire Jewish population of the city. After February 1917, the influence of the Zionists only strengthened - according to the results of elections to the councils of new democratic Jewish communities: in Perm they received 21 seats out of 35, in Orenburg - 11 out of 31, in Ufa - 12 out of 28. In addition to the Zionists in all major Ural cities Jewish parties of various directions operated: socialist Marxist - Bund and Poalei Zion and non-Marxist - united socialists - ESRP (which arose from the merger of the Socialist Jewish Workers' Party - SERP and the Zionist Socialist Workers' Party), liberal - the Jewish People's Group, the Jewish People's Party. After February 1917, they actively became involved in all-Russian public life, nominated their deputies in elections to local government bodies and sometimes even got elected. Thus, in the summer of 1917, a representative of the Jewish Democratic Group, Isaac Abramovich Kontorovich, was elected as a member of the Yekaterinburg City Duma. However, the majority of provincial branches of all-Russian Jewish parties, with rare exceptions (representatives of the Bund after February were members of the Soviets of Perm, Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Kungur), performed cultural and national functions to a greater extent than political ones.
On March 20, 1917, the “Resolution of the Provisional Government on the abolition of religious and national restrictions” equalized Jews with Russian citizens, proclaiming the abolition of all laws contrary to the principle of equality. But the subsequent flourishing of Jewish parties and organizations was short-lived. The new Soviet government, through the Jewish Commissariat, created under the People's Commissariat for Nationalities headed by Stalin, as well as the Jewish sections of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, began the gradual curtailment and then the complete liquidation of national Jewish parties and public associations. By 1930, in the Urals, Jewish prayer houses, synagogues and other premises were requisitioned by the authorities, and the organizations themselves were closed (material assets were confiscated even earlier - in 1922, under the pretext of helping the hungry).
During the Great Patriotic War, mass evacuation to the Urals led to the appearance in the late 1940s and 50s. in Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg) and Molotov (Perm) small religious societies engaged in purely religious matters and existed on voluntary donations. But they did not last long: in 1959, by decision of the Council of People's Deputies of the local convocation, the Jewish society of Molotov was closed, and in 1961 - of Sverdlovsk. The only building in Sverdlovsk, built back in 1916 specifically for Jewish religious needs (ritual bathhouse - mikveh), was demolished.
Thus, until the late 1980s, Jewish life was denied legal public expression. However, this could not eradicate people’s desire for communication and knowledge, preservation and transmission of traditions. Many families retained spoken Yiddish at home, especially those evacuated during the Great Patriotic War and who remained to live in the Urals. Communication and discussion of miraculously arriving letters from relatives from Israel took place exclusively at home, “in the kitchen.” In several regional centers of the region, “home” minyanim gathered for prayer7. It is also known that despite the threat of arrest in several cities, Hebrew classes were held clandestinely in apartments. And largely thanks to this simmering “at-home” Jewish life, as well as the enormous need for national communication and self-expression that did not fade during the Soviet decades, the modern revival and re-creation of Jewish communities in the Urals and throughout the country was received with amazing enthusiasm.
1 Anti-Semitism in Russia is an extremely complex topic. The role of the authorities of the Russian Empire in provoking and organizing Jewish pogroms is not always clear. At the very least, the widespread opinion among both Jewish and Russian intelligentsia about the responsibility of the authorities, especially the government, for organizing pogroms is not always based on reliable evidence. Another thing is the blatant connivance of these pogroms.
2 Shadchen is an intermediary in marriage among Jews.
3 Shoichet is a slaughterer who slaughters livestock and poultry in accordance with the ritual prescriptions of Judaism.
4 Schichtmeister - the rank of a mining official of the 13th or 14th class. The 13th class shiftmaster corresponded in the table of ranks to an army second lieutenant and a civilian college protocolist and registrar.
5 Torah - the first five books of the “Hebrew Bible” (the Jewish name of which is TaNaKh, the non-Jewish name is the Old Testament). The Torah, in scroll form, is kept in synagogues and a specific weekly section is read during Shabbat services.
6 Heder is a Jewish religious primary school.
7 A minyan is a gathering of at least ten Jewish men who have reached religious adulthood (13 years old). The presence of a minyan is mandatory for public worship.
JEWS, self-name - Yehudim (in Hebrew), yid (in Yiddish). The formation of the Jewish people is associated with the period of the 2nd millennium BC, when the integration of Semitic-speaking nomadic pastoralists of the middle reaches of the Euphrates and farmers of the oases of Canaan took place on the territory of ancient Canaan (modern Israel). According to Jewish tradition, recorded in the Torah, the Jewish people were formed as a result of the Exodus from Egypt and the adoption of the Law of the Torah at Mount Sinai, where the state of Judea appeared. In 586 BC. The Babylonians conquered the Kingdom of Judah, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and took a significant part of the Jews to Babylon (Babylonian captivity). With the fall of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom (539 BC), some of the Jews returned to Judea. From this time on, a model of ethnic development of Jews began to take shape with a symbolic and cultural center in Israel and a large diaspora. Originating initially in Mesopotamia and Egypt, from the end of the 1st millennium BC. The diaspora covers North Africa, Asia Minor, Syria, Iran, the Caucasus, Crimea, and the Western Mediterranean. Today Jews are settled all over the world, their total number is about 13 million people. The number of Jews in Russia in 2002 amounted to 230 thousand people, having decreased by almost half compared to 1989 (536.85 thousand). The first mentions of Jewish communities in Kievan Rus date back to the 10th century. Anti-Jewish sentiments in Western and Central Europe in the Middle Ages contributed to the emergence of Jewish communities in Moscow, Novgorod and other cities. Traditionally, Jews were engaged in various crafts, trade, and usury. Under Catherine II in the second half of the 18th century. As a result of the division of Poland and the annexation of its regions to the Russian Empire, a significant number of Polish Jews came under the influence of Russia. The beginning of the formation of the Jewish diaspora in the Kama region dates back to the first quarter of the 19th century. The basis of the Jewish population was laid by exiles, as well as migrants moving inland. According to the laws of the Russian Empire, Perm was the most extreme, western point where Jews were allowed to settle. The introduction of conscription (decree of Nicholas I of August 26, 1827) became a new stage in Jewish migration to the Urals. Jewish recruits (cantonist Jews who converted to Orthodoxy) begin to arrive in the Kama region. Thus, the core of the Jewish population in the Perm province consisted of exiles and military personnel. Gradually, Jewish urban intelligentsia appeared in Perm: doctors, engineers, merchants, musicians, singers. During this period, Jews were mainly engaged in crafts and trade. In the 1840s. The first Jewish cemetery appeared, which has survived to this day. In 1869, a prayer house was opened in Perm, which housed a religious school, and in 1886 a synagogue was built. The wooden “soldier’s” synagogue (1886) was supplemented by a stone synagogue built in 1903 on Ekaterininskaya, now Bolshevik, street. According to the All-Russian Population Census of 1897, the Jewish population of the Perm province amounted to just over two thousand people. The growth was also due to an increase in the number of artisans who arrived from the Pale of Settlement. Thus, by 1910, more than one and a half thousand Jews lived in Perm, which accounted for 2.6% of the city’s total population. In 1913, a Jewish two-year school was opened, in which up to 170 children studied. In addition to general education subjects, the curriculum until 1919 included Hebrew and the history of the Jewish people. During the First World War, a new migration round in the development of the Jewish diaspora was noted; refugees from the western provinces of Russia arrived in the Kama region, and during the Civil War, a new stream of migrants rushed to the Urals (Jews fleeing the pogrom wave that swept through the western provinces of Tsarist Russia ). In 1920, the Jewish population of the city was already 2.6 thousand people, or 4% of the population of Perm. Since the 1920s In Perm there was a Yiddish elementary school and a library. In 1939-40s. The Jewish population of Perm was replenished with exiles from the western regions of Ukraine, Belarus, Bessarabia and refugees from Polynya, occupied by the Germans. During the Great Patriotic War, many industrial enterprises and cultural institutions were evacuated to the Urals. The Jewish population expanded again. In 1947, the religious community was re-established, but all necessary rituals continued to be carried out in private homes. At the end of the 1950s. Perm attracts Jewish youth wishing to obtain higher education due to its virtual absence of discrimination against Jewish applicants. In the second half of the 20th century. in connection with assimilation processes, an increase in the number of mixed marriages, and migration in the 1950s and 1980s. within the country there was a slight decrease in the Jewish population in the Kama region. Thus, according to the 1989 census, 5.1 thousand Jews lived in Perm. In the 1990s. There was a significant migration outflow to Israel, which weakened the Perm diaspora; the peak of migration occurred in 1990-1994. According to the 2002 census, 2.6 thousand people live in the Perm region. representatives of the Jewish people. The majority of Perm Jews, like the majority of Russian Jews, belong to the ethnographic group of Eastern European Jews who considered Yiddish their native language. Most Jews speak the language of the country in which they live. Some Jews also speak Hebrew and Yiddish. The official language of the Jews of Israel is Hebrew, which belongs to the Semitic-Hamitic language family. All Jewish customs and rituals are related to religion. Therefore, the greatest stability and preservation of traditional culture was manifested in calendar rituals. The most significant religious holidays are Rosh Hashanah (New Year), Yom Kippur (Judgment Day), Pesach (Easter), Shavuot (Pentecost), Sukkot (Tabernacles), Purim, Tubishvat, Hanukkah, Lag Ba-Omer. In food, the rule of kashrut (religious taboo) prohibits mixing dairy and meat products. Jews today are fully integrated into the local community and are present in almost all sectors of the economy. A large number of Jews are involved in the fields of science, culture and art. Religion and education in the native language played a huge role in preserving ethnic identification. The organizer of the first Israeli opera, Mordechai Golinkin, and the outstanding conductor and composer Ari Pazovsky began their activities in Perm; Jewish prose writers Bronislava and Aron Burshtein, and the Jewish poet Peisach Yanovsky lived and worked for many years. In addition to the Jewish Religious Society (at the synagogue), which is part of the “KEROOR” (Congress of Jewish Religious Organizations and Associations in Russia), in Perm there is a religious community center “Chabad Lubavitch Or Avner” - another direction in Judaism. It has a comprehensive school with ethnocultural and religious components in education, as well as a Sunday school and a kindergarten. The synagogue also has a Sunday school and kindergarten, and a kosher canteen. There are also several Jewish public (secular) organizations operating in Perm: Hillel, which unites Jewish student youth, Hesed Kokhav, a charitable foundation whose activities are aimed at comprehensive support for the elderly part of the Jewish population, Sokhnut, a Jewish agency in Russia dedicated to issues of repatriation to their historical homeland. Public national-cultural organizations appeared among the Jews among the first. In 1988, the Menorah Jewish cultural center was created in Perm. Since 1990, a Sunday school began operating at the synagogue. In 1996, the Perm Regional Jewish National-Cultural Autonomy (PRENKA) was created, which included several Jewish organizations.
Today PRENKA actively interacts with government authorities of the region. With the support of the Administration of the Governor of the Perm Territory. Within the framework of the regional target Program for the development and harmonization of national relations, the Jewish newspaper “Yom-Yom” (“Day by Day”) is published about the life of Perm Jews, festivals of Jewish culture and traditional holidays are held.
Which people have the strongest roots on our planet? Perhaps this question is relevant for any historian. And almost every one of them will answer with confidence - the Jewish people. Despite the fact that humanity has inhabited the Earth for hundreds of thousands of years, we know our history at best for the last twenty centuries AD and approximately the same amount BC. e.
But the history of the Jewish people begins much earlier. All events in it are closely intertwined with religion and involve constant persecution.
First mentions
Despite their considerable age, the first mentions of Jews date back to the time of the construction of the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs. As for the records of themselves, the history of the Jewish people from ancient times begins with its first representative - Abraham. The son of Shem (who, in turn, was born in the vastness of Mesopotamia.
As an adult, Abraham moves to Canaan, where he meets the local population, subject to spiritual decay. It is here that God takes this husband under his protection and enters into an agreement with him, thereby placing his mark on him and his descendants. It is from this moment that the events described in the gospel stories begin, in which the history of the Jewish people is so rich. Briefly, it consists of the following periods:
- biblical;
- ancient;
- antique;
- medieval;
- modern times (including the Holocaust and the return of Israel to the Jews).
Moving to Egypt
Abraham starts a family, he has a son Isaac, and from him - Jacob. The latter, in turn, gives birth to Joseph - a new bright figure in the gospel stories. Betrayed by his brothers, he ends up in Egypt as a slave. But still he manages to free himself from slavery and, moreover, become close to the pharaoh himself. This phenomenon (the presence of a pathetic slave in the retinue of the supreme ruler) is facilitated by the narrow-mindedness of the pharaoh’s family (the Hyksos), who came to the throne due to vile and cruel actions that led to the overthrow of the previous dynasty. This genus is also known as the shepherd pharaohs. Once in power, Joseph transports his father and his family to Egypt. This is how the strengthening of Jews in a certain area begins, which contributes to their rapid reproduction.
The beginning of the persecution
The history of the Jewish people from the Bible shows them as peaceful shepherds, minding exclusively their own business and not getting involved in politics, despite the fact that the Hyksos dynasty sees them as a worthy ally, giving them the best lands and other conditions necessary for farming. Before entering Egypt, the clan of Jacob numbered twelve tribes (twelve tribes), which, under the patronage of the shepherd pharaohs, grew into an entire ethnic group with its own culture.
Further, the history of the Jewish people tells of deplorable times for them. An army leaves Thebes with the goal of overthrowing the self-proclaimed pharaoh and establishing the power of a true dynasty. She will soon succeed in doing just that. They still refrain from reprisals against the Hyksos favorites, but at the same time turn them into slaves. The Jews endured long years of slavery and humiliation (210 years of slavery in Egypt) before the coming of Moses.
Moses and the withdrawal of the Jews from Egypt
The history of the Jewish people shows Moses as coming from an ordinary family. At that time, the Egyptian authorities were seriously alarmed by the growth of the Jewish population, and a decree was issued to kill every boy born into a family of slaves. Miraculously surviving, Moses ends up with Pharaoh's daughter, who adopts him. So the young man finds himself in the ruling family, where all the secrets of government are revealed to him. However, he remembers his roots, which begins to torment him. He becomes unbearable at the way the Egyptians treat his fellow men. On one of his walking days, Moses kills the overseer who was brutally beating a slave. But he turns out to be betrayed by the same slave, which leads to his flight and forty years of hermitage in the mountains. It is there that God turns to him with a decree to lead his people out of the lands of Egypt, while endowing Moses with unprecedented abilities.
Further events include various miracles that Moses demonstrates to Pharaoh, demanding the release of his people. They do not end after the Jews leave the Jewish people for children (gospel stories) shows them as:
- the flow of the river before Moses;
- fall of manna from heaven;
- the splitting of a rock and the formation of a waterfall in it and much more.
After the Jews left the power of Pharaoh, their goal became the lands of Canaan, which were allotted to them by God himself. This is where Moses and his followers are heading.
Israel Education
Forty years later, Moses dies. Right before the walls of Canaan, where he gives his power to Joshua. Over the course of seven years, he conquered one Canaanite principality after another. On the captured land, Israel is formed (translated from Hebrew as “fighter of God”). Further, the history of the Jewish people tells about the formation of the city - both the capital of the Jewish lands and the center of the world. Such famous personalities as Saul, David, Solomon and many others appear on his throne. A huge temple is erected in it, which is destroyed by the Babylonians and which is restored again after the liberation of the Jews by the wise Persian king Crete.
Israel is divided into two states: Judah and Israel, which are subsequently captured and destroyed by the Assyrians and Babylonians.
As a result, several centuries after Joshua conquered the Canaanite lands, the Jewish people scattered throughout the land, having lost their home.
Later times
After the collapse of the Jewish and Jerusalem states, the history of the Jewish people has several ramifications. And almost every one of them survives to this day. Perhaps there is not a single side where Jews would go after the loss, just as there is not a single country in our time where there is a Jewish diaspora.
And in each state they greeted “God’s people” differently. If in America they automatically had equal rights with the indigenous population, then closer to the Russian border they faced mass persecution and humiliation. The history of the Jewish people in Russia tells of pogroms, from Cossack raids to the Holocaust during World War II.
And only in 1948, by decision of the United Nations, the Jews were returned to their “historical homeland” - Israel.
Chapter 1. Formation and development of the Jewish Diaspora. 1.1 The emergence and development of the Jewish diaspora in the 19th and early 20th
1.2 Migrations, numbers and distribution of Jews during the Soviet period.
Chapter 2. Reproduction, sex, age and social composition.
2.1 Fertility, mortality and age and sex structure. 2.2 Features of social composition
Chapter 3. Ethnic processes among the Jewish population.
3.1 Traditional culture of Jews in the 19th - early 20th centuries.
3.2 Development of assimilation processes during the Soviet period.
3.3 Anti-Semitism as a factor in ethnic processes.
Introduction of the dissertation 2000, abstract on history, Forgiven, Tatyana Vladimirovna
Ethnic history is one of the key aspects of Russian history. Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in the interest of scientists and the general public in this problem. Due to the diversity of the ethnic composition of the Russian population, the national issue has traditionally been of great importance, both politically and socioculturally. From a scientific point of view, turning to the study of the problems of various ethnic groups is a necessary condition for recreating a holistic and impartial picture of the historical development of the Russian state.
Jews were one of the most numerous peoples inhabiting our country. The relevance of the research topic is determined primarily by the fact that the history of the Jewish population still remains a “blank spot” on the ethnic map of the Urals. The formulation of this issue is dictated by the need to fill a serious gap in historiography on the history of the Jewish people in Russia and the former USSR, as well as on the ethnocultural history of the Urals. Studying the development of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals is fundamentally important both for the historical self-awareness of the Jewish people themselves, and for the most complete disclosure of the problems of interethnic relations and cultural interaction of Jews and other peoples inhabiting the region.
The object of the study is the Jewish population in the Urals, belonging to the Ashkenazi subethnic group. The Jewish population of the world is traditionally divided into a number of so-called communities, distinguished by the totality of their historical, geographical and linguistic characteristics. The group of Ashkenazi Jews includes descendants of Jews from Eastern Europe who spoke Yiddish in the past. Ashkenazim were chosen as the object of study as the most numerous subethnic group of the Jewish population of Russia and the USSR.
The subject of the study is the demographic and ethnocultural appearance of the Jewish diaspora in the region, which emerged as a result of a long process of historical development.
The purpose of the work is to study the direction and results of the process of historical development of the Jewish population in the Urals. Based on this goal, the following research objectives were identified:
To study the patterns of formation of the Jewish population in the Urals;
Identify the main migration flows of Jews to the region, explore their course, direction, causes and characteristics;
Conduct an analysis of the dynamics of the number and distribution of the Jewish population;
Study the processes of the natural movement of the Jewish population;
Explore its social structure;
Analyze the course and results of ethnic processes, for which purpose examine the degree of Jewish adherence to traditional culture, restore a retrospective picture of the cultural, religious and social life of the Diaspora;
To study the scale of the spread of anti-Semitism in the Urals, to study its role in the system of interethnic relations and its influence on changes in the ethnocultural appearance of the Jewish population of the region.
The chronological scope of the work is the beginning of the 19th century - the 1980s. The lower chronological limit is associated with the beginning of the process of formation of the Jewish population in the Urals. The choice of the upper chronological boundary is determined by the date of the last All-Union Population Census (1989) and the fundamental changes in the socio-political and socio-economic system of the state that occurred in the early 1990s. The last decade of the 20th century is undoubtedly one of the most interesting and dynamic stories in the history of the Jews of the former Soviet Union. However, the lack of a representative source base currently makes it impossible to objectively and completely study this plot. Thus, the dissertation research covers the entire period of existence of the Jewish diaspora in the region, with the exception of the so-called post-Soviet period.
The territory that belonged in the 19th - early 20th centuries was chosen as the initial territorial boundaries. to the Perm province, one of the largest Ural provinces. Numerous changes in the administrative-territorial division of the Urals, which took place in the first decades of Soviet power, significantly complicate the task of determining a framework that would accurately coincide with the boundaries of the former Perm province. In this case, the most justified for the Soviet period is the choice of the territories of the Perm and Sverdlovsk regions (in the modern administrative-territorial division).
The methodological basis of the work is the principle of historicism, an objective account of all historical factors that determined the nature of the phenomena and processes under study. Trends in the historical development of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals are studied in the context of specific historical events in the country and region in each specific period. At the same time, the Jewish population of the Urals is considered, firstly, as a kind of independent whole, secondly, as one of the elements of the Jewish diaspora of Russia and the USSR, and thirdly, as an integral part of the population of the country and the region as a whole. For a deeper understanding of the causes and content of the main ethnic processes that took place among the Jewish population of the region, both the general patterns of functioning of the culture of the Jewish people and the socio-economic and political conditions that influenced the ethnic development of the Jewish diaspora are taken into account. The theoretical approach to the problems of the historical development of Jews in the Urals is based on the basic principles of modern ethnology and historical demography.
The history of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals is extremely poorly covered in the scientific literature. At the same time, the history of Russian and Soviet Jewry has a rich domestic and foreign historiography. The object of study in this area is the Jewish population of Russia and the Soviet Union as a whole, as well as individual problems of the ethnic history of Jews. The author of the dissertation does not set as the goal of the study a special analysis of historiography on the history of Russian Jewry, especially since in general works the issues of the formation and development of the Jewish population in the Urals, as a rule, are not addressed. This review includes works directly used in the dissertation research.
Among the largest studies on the history of the Jewish people dating back to the pre-revolutionary period, mention should be made of the works of Yu. I. Gessen and S. M. Dubnov. Extensive factual material on Jewish history and culture is contained in the Jewish Encyclopedia, published in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. .
In the first decades of Soviet power, growing interest in the history of Jews led to the appearance of many scientific publications on various aspects of this problem. Among them is the article “Child Martyrs” by S. M. Ginzburg, published in the magazine “Jewish Antiquity” (1930). The object of the author’s research is the institution of cantonists and its role in the policy of Christianization of Jews during the reign of Nicholas I. Along with unique data on the number of Jews in cantonist battalions, which also includes data on the Ural battalions, the article contains extensive material on the legislative provisions regulating the carrying of conscription, purposes and methods of forced baptism of cantonists.
In the USSR since the late 1940s. the history of the Jewish population is becoming almost a taboo topic for researchers. The study of this issue has been resumed only since the mid-1980s. Thus, issues of migration, numbers and distribution of the Jewish population in the 19th and early 20th centuries. found reflection in a number of works by N.V. Yukhneva. General problems of the evacuation of the Jewish population of the western regions of the Soviet Union, and in particular, issues of state policy in relation to the problem of evacuation are discussed in the articles of I. Arad and C. Schweibisch. A fundamental study of the scale of human losses of the Jewish population of the USSR during the Second World War was carried out by M. S. Kupovetsky. Articles by A. Sinelnikov are devoted to the issues of demography of Russian and Soviet Jews. Thus, in his work “Why is Russian Jewry disappearing?” the researcher examines the dynamics of the main demographic indicators characterizing the state of the Jewish diaspora of the USSR and modern Russia, analyzes the reasons that caused a decrease in the nominal number, birth rates, etc. Jewish population.
In the last decade, due to the increased interest of researchers in ethnic history, a large number of publications have been published on the content and consequences of the official policy of nation-state building in the USSR. Among such works are articles by Ts. Gitelman, R.V. Rybkina, D. Furman, A.M. Chernyak. The authors place the main emphasis on revealing the reasons for the worsening processes of acculturation and assimilation of Soviet Jewry and the actual decline of Jewish culture and self-awareness. The works of R.V. Rybkina, in addition, contain data from a sociological survey conducted in 1995 among the Jewish population of the city. Yekaterinburg, Moscow, Rostov-on-Don and Khabarovsk and reflecting the current state of Jewish national culture and identity.
A special complex of Russian historiography consists of studies devoted to certain issues of Russian and Soviet history, which also touch upon some aspects of the history of the Jewish people. These include the works of historians and demographers S.I. Brook and V.M. Kabuzan. They contain extensive information about the quantitative characteristics of the Jewish population of the Russian Empire and trace the dynamics of the Jewish population in the pre-Soviet period.
Specific issues of migration processes in Soviet times are considered in a number of scientific works devoted to both the Jewish population of the USSR and the population of the country as a whole. Thus, when studying the migration of Jews of foreign origin to the Urals in the 1930s. we used the work of S.V. Zhuravlev and V.S. Tyazhelyshkova “Foreign colony in Soviet Russia in the 1920-1930s (Problem statement and research methods)”, as well as the work of A.V. Bakunin. For studying the fate of foreign migrants, the article by N.V. Petrov and A.B. Roginsky “The Polish operation of the NKVD 1937 - 1938” is of significant value, revealing another aspect of Stalin’s repressions - terror against former citizens of Poland, among whom a significant part were Jews A similar aspect is discussed in the monograph by V. Z. Rogovin “The Party of the Executed” and a number of other publications.
The problem of deportation of Jewish refugees to the eastern regions of the USSR in the early 1940s. was reflected in the studies of N. F. Bugai, A. E. Guryanov, V. N. Zemskov. In addition to describing the content of these migration processes, the authors provide statistical material on the number of Jewish Polish refugees in the territory of the Soviet Union and the Ural regions.
A great difficulty for the researcher is the study of the migration of the Jewish population during the Great Patriotic War. The evacuation of Jews to the Urals during this period led to a significant increase in the Jewish population, but it is very difficult to trace the specific dynamics of the population. Information about the total number of arrivals in the Urals, the placement of evacuees and their approximate national composition is contained in the works of A. A. Antufiev, G. E. Kornilov, V. P. Motrevich.
In the last decade, the number of publications devoted to the problem of nationalism and its historical development in Russia has increased significantly. In 1992, S. A. Stepanov’s monograph “The Black Hundred in Russia. 1905-1914", entirely dedicated to the activities of Black Hundred organizations and the problem of anti-Semitism in the Russian Empire. In 1994, a monograph by the Ural historian I.V. Narsky was published. In it, the author presents extensive factual material about the activities of the Black Hundreds in the territory
Ural, about the extent of the spread of anti-Semitic sentiments in various social circles, analyzes the number of Black Hundred organizations, the scale of their political influence, etc. From the point of view of the problems posed in this dissertation, the work of I.V. Narsky is of great interest and scientific value.
Foreign historiography on the history of the Jewish population of Russia and the USSR is very extensive. The Concise Jewish Encyclopedia, a continuing publication of the Society for the Study of Jewish Communities (published since 1972 in Jerusalem), is of great interest and scientific value. This consolidated reference work on Jewish studies contains rich factual material devoted to both the key issues of Jewish civilization as a whole and their manifestations on the territory of the Russian Empire and the USSR, and provides its scientific assessment within the framework of a unified conceptual approach.
Particular attention of foreign researchers is drawn to the issues of demographic development of the Jewish population of the former Soviet Union. This interest is due to a number of crisis demographic phenomena among the Jewish diasporas in many countries of the world. A detailed development of this problem is contained in the works of the prominent demographer Sergio Della Pergola. The problem of the social composition of the Jewish population of Russia and the USSR is reflected in the work of A. Nov and D. Newt.
General issues of the Russian state's policy towards the Jewish population are reflected in D. Bayel's monograph, where the problems of the history of the Jewish population of Europe and the Russian Empire are considered in the context of modernization processes (unlike other works on this issue, the distinctive feature of which is ethnocentrism). The dissertation work also used the article by R. Pipes “Catherine II and the Jews: The Origin of the Pale of Settlement.” The famous American scientist offers his own interpretation of the main factors that contributed to the emergence in the Russian state of such a unique phenomenon as the “Pale of Settlement”. The problem of anti-Semitism, its origins and forms, received detailed consideration in the conceptual monographs of H. Arendt, W. Laqueur, M. Hay.
To summarize the review of literature, it should be noted that it is mainly devoted to general issues of the history of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, as well as some aspects of the historical development of the Jewish population of Russia and the USSR. This body of literature allows us to sufficiently explore the patterns of development of the Jewish diaspora in our country, identify the main trends in ethnic processes characteristic of Russian and Soviet Jewry, as well as the main directions of state policy towards the Jewish population. Despite the rapid growth of interest in the history of the Jewish population in Russia and the USSR, the history of regional groups of the Jewish population of Russia is not always sufficiently reflected in the works of researchers. As for the Urals, today there is no comprehensive study on this issue. The exception is publications devoted to its individual narrow aspects.
One of the first attempts to understand the issues of the formation and development of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals was made in the second half of the 1980s. Perm scientists B.I. Burshtein and A.I. Burshtein. In the work “Formation of the Jewish Population of the City of Perm,” the authors proposed a periodization of the processes of migration of the Jewish population to the Urals and, using the example of Perm, described the main features of its stages. This periodization, in our opinion, is quite justified and forms the basis of this work. Using a relatively small source base, the authors were able to identify the most important patterns in the formation of the Jewish population of the Urals. On the other hand, the publication is of a review nature, and therefore many issues of the history of the Jewish Diaspora in the region were not addressed in it. Thus, the study almost does not touch upon the problems of the specifics of the Ural region and its impact on the social composition of the Jewish population.
The article by A. I. Burshtein and B. I. Burshtein “Dynamics of the registered fund of the Jews of Perm” deserves special attention. 1918-1987 (name of a small group in a multinational city)". Based on a study of qualitative and quantitative changes in the Jewish population of the city throughout the Soviet period, the authors trace the processes of acculturation and assimilation of this ethnic group, the influence of state policy on the self-awareness of Perm Jews. Unique in its methodology, the study contains valuable material for developing questions of the ethnocultural history of Jews in the Urals.
In the 1990s. As part of the study of various individual aspects of the history of the Jewish population in the Urals, a number of popular scientific publications appear. The undoubted value of these works lies in the saturation of factual material, first introduced into scientific circulation. Thus, a study of the history of the Jewish population of Perm was carried out by A. Bargtheil and H. Pinkas. By turning to archival sources, the authors were able to recreate general milestones in the social, cultural and religious life of the city’s Jewish population throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. A similar publication devoted to a brief history of Jews in Yekaterinburg, Perm and Tyumen was written by I. E. Antropova and M. I. Oshtrakha.
The problem of anti-Semitism and its manifestations in the Urals is reflected in the works of I. Balonov, S.L. Belov, A.S. Kimerling, O. Leibovich. Biographies of Ural Jewish figures in science, culture, and education are of great interest to researchers. In this regard, I would like to especially note the works of Yu. E. Sorkin, A. V. Volfson, M. S. Lutsky, who collected and summarized unique historical and biographical material. Thus, the reference book by Yu.E. Sorkin “Famous Doctors - Jews of Yekaterinburg” contains data on doctors of Jewish nationality who worked in Yekaterinburg at the end of the 19th-20th centuries. Book of essays by A.V. Volfson “Jews of Uralmash in the years
The Great Patriotic War" includes, in addition to information about Jewish workers in the Ural heavy industry, interesting material on the problem of the evacuation of the Jewish population to the Urals during the Great Patriotic War.
Among the latest publications concerning the problems of ethnic culture and self-awareness of Jews in the Urals, sociological studies conducted in the first half of the 1990s are of significant value. among the Jewish population of the Perm region and Yekaterinburg. The results of these studies reflect the current state of the Jewish diaspora in the region, which is the result of a long process of demographic, social and cultural transformations among the Jewish population.
In general, a review of the literature shows that researchers of the history of the Jews of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union have accumulated extensive factual and theoretical material on various aspects of this problem. The study of historiography is of great importance from the point of view of clarifying the general trends in the historical development of the Jewish population of our country. At the same time, the history of the Jews of the Urals actually remains unstudied, since until now it has not been the subject of special research either in domestic or foreign historiography.
On the other hand, the presence of a very informative source base to a certain extent compensates for the lack of research on this topic. The dissertation work is based on an analysis of an extensive complex of archival materials and published sources. Among the archival documents, the work used files from 62 funds of 9 archival repositories of the country: the State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF), the Russian State Archive of Economics (RGEA), the Russian Center for the Storage and Use of Documents of Contemporary History (RCKHIDNI),
State Archive of Administrative Bodies of the Sverdlovsk Region (GAAOSO), State Archive for the Affairs of Political Repressed Persons of the Perm Region (GADPR PO), State Archive of Contemporary History and Socio-Political Movements of the Perm Region (GANIOPD PO), State Archive of the Perm Region (GAPO), State Archive of the Sverdlovsk Region region (GASO), Documentation Center for Public Organizations of the Sverdlovsk Region (CDOOSO).
According to the type classification accepted in source studies, the sources involved in the study can be divided into the following categories: legislation, office documentation, statistical sources, periodicals, reference books, works of memoirs and fiction. Let us consider the information potential of each of these complexes.
Legislative sources are of great value for studying the main directions of state policy on the Jewish issue, some aspects of the historical development of the Jewish population of the Russian Empire and the USSR, as well as the very approach of the authorities to determining the legal status of Jews. This type of source is represented primarily by documents of the 19th - early 20th centuries: decrees, manifestos, highest commands, charters, regulations, etc. In addition to information about the content of a specific decision made, legislative acts sometimes include a description of the situation or precedent that led to the issuance of a new act. As part of the documents of this complex, in addition to legislative acts published in various publications (Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire, Code of Laws of the Russian Empire) and periodicals, there are never published acts that were of a confidential nature. Legislative sources of the Soviet period include decrees and resolutions of supreme and central government bodies.
Office documentation represents the largest array of archival materials used in the work. It contains documents of central and local authorities of the pre-Soviet and Soviet periods, as well as documents of the mining administration of the Urals, the Orthodox Church
XIX - early XX centuries) and central and local bodies of the CPSU (b) - CPSU. As part of this array, the following groups of documents can be distinguished: correspondence, petition documents, judicial-investigative, administrative, military, reporting documentation, protocols, etc.
Office documentation dating back to the pre-Soviet period belongs to the GAPO and GASO funds. Basically, these are cases that arose in the process of control by local authorities over the arrival, residence and economic activities of Jews in the Urals. A characteristic feature of these documents is that a fairly significant part of them belongs to the funds of the mining administration, which confirms the influence of the specifics of the region on the formation and development of the Jewish population. The used array of documents from the pre-Soviet period contains detailed representative information on various aspects of the problem under study. This information is practically not reflected either in the scientific literature or in published sources and is being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.
In the complex of office documentation, a significant volume is correspondence. It is distinguished by the variety of types of documents. Of particular interest are the regulations, decrees, orders, and circulars of local authorities on the issues of residence and economic activities of Jews in the region. This array is closely related to legislative acts, since the documents belonging to it often explain certain nuances of legislation on the Jewish issue in relation to the territory of the Urals. The study of this set of sources is fundamentally important for clarifying the problem of the legal basis of migration and economic activity of the Jewish population in the Urals, as well as the implementation of all-Russian legislation on the “Jewish question” on the ground. Another type of correspondence is correspondence between lower bodies and higher ones: reports, reports, petitions, etc. These are mainly documents of control of various local authorities over the residence of Jews in the Perm province.
Important material was extracted from the files of the mining administration funds - the Ural Mining Administration (GASO.F.24), the Main Office of the Ekaterinburg Mining Plants (GASO.F.25), and the Office of the Chief Director of the Ural Mining Plants (GASO.F.43). The materials of the mining administration funds fully reflect the specifics of determining the rights of Jews in the sphere of residence and activities at the Ural mining plants. In particular, much attention in the documents of these funds is paid to the practice of observing the decree of Alexander I of December 19, 1824, banning the residence of Jews in areas subordinate to the mining administration. The funds of mining department organizations also contain reporting documentation on the presence of Jews in the service in mining factories, and materials related to baptisms and religious activities of Jewish military personnel of mining battalions.
The work also used office documentation from the funds of the Perm provincial government (GAPO.F.36) and the Office of the Perm governor (GAPO.F.65). Among the materials from these funds, of great interest are the reports of district police officers on the number and composition of Jewish refugees during the First World War, sent to live in the Perm province. It should be noted that this aspect of migration of the Jewish population to the region as a whole is rather poorly reflected in sources and literature, and therefore the study of documents of provincial authorities acquires special significance. In addition, from the materials of these funds, the study included reports from police officers on the number of houses of worship of the Jewish faith in the Perm province, as well as a case that arose from the report of the Krasnoufimsk district police officer about riots in the city of Krasnoufimsk associated with manifestations of interethnic hatred.
A number of sources used in this work belong to the funds of police supervisory authorities - the Yekaterinburg city police (GASO.F.35), the Verkhoturye district police department (GASO.F.621), the Verkhoturye district police officer (GASO.F.183). In the complex of materials from these funds, special mention should be made of reports on the size and social composition of the Jewish population living in various districts of the Perm province. They contain lists of Jews by name, indicating their occupation, date of arrival in the area, place of registration and the grounds on which the person received the right to live outside the Pale of Settlement. The disadvantage of this type of source is the lack of unity of place and time, since the reports were compiled according to separate instructions of the Perm governor and refer to the Jewish population of different counties in different periods of time. An exception is the reports of the Yekaterinburg city police (GASO.F.35), on the basis of which it is possible to trace the dynamics of the number of Jews in the city in the 1840-60s, their gender and age composition, and also reveal some information about religious activities.
The funds of the police surveillance bodies also contain an array of documents on issues of economic activity of Jews (issuance of certificates for various types of occupations, etc.). In addition to information about this activity, this documentary complex includes numerous excerpts from legislation on the “Jewish question” and their interpretation, i.e., it reveals the mechanism for applying laws to the Jewish population of the Perm province.
A certain part of the archival sources of the pre-Soviet period is concentrated in the funds of local city governments and current administrative accounting bodies. These include, in particular, the funds of the Yekaterinburg City Duma (GASO.F.8), the Ekaterinburg City Government (GACO.F.62) and the Perm City Certificate (GAPO.F.35). The documents of these funds reflect mainly the details of the economic and religious life of Jews in the cities of Perm and Yekaterinburg. For example, the files of the Yekaterinburg city government contain data on the national composition of persons engaged in private entrepreneurship, including information on the amount of capital of enterprises at a national level. Similar information is contained in the documents of the Perm city certificate. Local governments also resolved some issues related to the religious activities of the Jewish population. Thus, the materials of the funds of these bodies include documents on permission for Jewish communities to build buildings for cultural and religious needs.
From the point of view of studying the processes of transition of Jews to Orthodoxy, documents from the funds of religious department organizations are of great interest. These include the fund of the Ekaterinburg Spiritual Consistory (GASO.F.6). In this department, issues regarding the acceptance of Jews into Orthodoxy were resolved, and relevant petitions from people of the Jewish faith were sent here.
Judicial and investigative documentation occupies a significant place among official records management. During the trial and investigation, various types of documents were formed: testimonies of the accused and witnesses, investigators' reports, indictments, statements of the defendants, court verdicts. The dissertation work used materials from criminal cases, one way or another related to the research issues.
The problem of the conversion of Orthodox Jews to Judaism is reflected in the materials of the Yekaterinburg District Court (GASO.F.11). These are judicial and investigative cases of Jewish residents of Yekaterinburg, which arose as a result of the latter’s refusal to profess Orthodoxy. The information potential of the source is very high. It fully reflects the legal issues and conflicts of this problem, contains copies of legislative acts, links to similar precedents in Russian criminal practice, detailed information about the accused, etc.
Judicial and investigative documentation was also used as a source on the history of ethnic hatred and anti-Semitism. This is a set of cases related to the investigation of the riots of October 19-20, 1905 in Yekaterinburg from the fund of the prosecutor of the Yekaterinburg District Court (GASO.F.180). They mainly contain testimonies of witnesses, victims and defendants, as well as material evidence, in particular leaflets. Despite the subjective nature of this source, it is indispensable in the study of public sentiments of the residents of Yekaterinburg towards the Jewish population, as well as in the study of the activities of Black Hundred organizations. It is interesting that the presence of an anti-Semitic orientation in the actions of the Black Hundreds was noted in their testimonies by representatives of various social strata, which is another proof of the real existence of pogrom sentiments in the events of October 1905.
A very informative source that significantly fills in the gaps in the history of the Jewish population of Yekaterinburg in the 1840-50s. is military documentation. These are the books of orders of the linear Orenburg battalion No. 8, subordinate to the mining administration (GASO.F.122). Books of orders provide the researcher with valuable information about the number of Jews in the battalion, the demographic characteristics of Jewish military personnel (in particular, marriage rates and mortality), religious life, adoption of Orthodoxy, the attitude of military commanders towards this category of persons, etc. The disadvantage of the source is its formal bureaucratic nature, due to which some aspects of the presence of Jews in the army are incompletely reflected or distorted.
Office documentation of the Soviet period is concentrated in the funds of central and local archives (GARF, RGAE, RCKHIDNI, SAAO SO, GADPR PA, GANIOPD PA, GAPO, GASO, TsDOOSO).
The documents of the central government bodies used in the dissertation research belong to the funds of the State Archives of the Russian Federation (SARF). These sources were brought to work to study such little-known aspects of the history of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals as labor and forced migration of Jews to the region in the 1920s-40s. Thus, in the fund of the People's Commissariat of Labor of the USSR (F.5515-r) reports were deposited on the use of foreign workers at various industrial enterprises, summary statements on the number of this contingent by industry. Of significant interest are the documents that arose during the activities of the MVD-NKVD bodies of the USSR. These include certificates and statements about the number and placement of Jewish Polish refugees deported in 1940 to the eastern regions of the USSR (fund of the 4th special department of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs). The “Special Folder” of the Secretariat of the NKVD-MVD of the USSR (F.9401-r) contains documents on the progress of the repatriation of former Polish refugees from the USSR to Poland in the second half of the 1940s. This aspect of the migration of the Jewish population is reflected in more detail in the documents of the fund of the Main Migration Administration under the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR (F. A-327) - certificates and reports on the number of former Polish citizens who left for Poland.
The presence in the collections of central and local archives of documents from organizations whose activities were aimed at implementing the goals of state policy in the field of Jewish culture and education greatly facilitates the solution of many of the tasks posed in the study. In particular, documents from the funds of the All-Union Society for the Land System of Working Jews (GARF.F.9498-r) and the Perm branch of this society (GAPO F.210-r), which mainly include minutes of meetings of the organizing committees of these organizations, reveal the features of social economic transformations among the Jewish population, contain data on the Ural OZET organizations, their subsidiaries, the number of young people employed at these enterprises, etc. Materials from the fund of the Union about craft and agricultural labor societies among Jews "ORT-Ferband" (RGAE.F.5244-r) contain documents on the employment of Jewish citizens of European countries in the Soviet Union in the late 1920s-30s.
Some of the sources used in the work belong to the funds of the Central Bureau of Jewish Sections under the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (RTsKHIDNI. F.445) and the Department of the Central Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs under the Perm Provincial Executive Committee (GAPO.F.945-r). The functions of these organizations included managing the activities of Jewish public educational institutions. The information potential of these archival materials allows us to study the main milestones of cultural policy among the Jewish population of the Urals in the 1920s, and its impact on ethnocultural processes. Similar information is quite widely presented in the documents of the funds of public education departments under local Councils of Deputies (GAPO.F.23-r; GASO.F. 17-r, 233-r).
Documents from funds of local authorities and public administration are very informative. These are mainly the funds of the administrative departments of the executive committees of Councils of Deputies at various levels (GAPO.F.115-r; GASO.F. 102-r, 286-r, etc.). Since the powers of these bodies included control over religious and cultural organizations (in particular, issues regarding the provision and withdrawal of houses of worship were resolved here), the paperwork documentation of the administrative departments contains information about various details of the life of the Jewish communities of Perm and Sverdlovsk.
The religious life of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals in the post-war decades was reflected in the documents of the fund of the authorized Council for Religious Affairs under the Council of Ministers of the USSR for the Perm Region (GAPO.F. 1204-r) and the fund of the Sverdlovsk Regional Committee of the CPSU (TsDOOSO.F.4). The annual reports of the commissioners of the Council for Religious Affairs under the USSR Council of Ministers for the Sverdlovsk and Perm regions contain data on the number, composition and activities of Jewish communities. Perm and Sverdlovsk. Of great interest is the case of the Jewish religious community of Sverdlovsk (1920-1938) from the fund of the Police Department of the Sverdlovsk Region of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR (GASO.F.854-r).
Of significant interest for the study of such a little-studied aspect of the history of Jews in the Urals, such as the evacuation of the Jewish population to the region during the Great Patriotic War, are the documents from the funds of the department of economic organization of the evacuated population in the Sverdlovsk region (GASS).F.540-r) and the resettlement department of the Sverdlovsk Regional Executive Committee ( GASS).F.2508-r). Documents from organizations involved in the reception, registration and employment of evacuees include lists and information about the number of this category of migrants in individual cities and districts of the Sverdlovsk region, as well as reports on consumer services for evacuees. These sources, in some cases, contain valuable information about the national composition of the evacuated population, and in addition, important evidence about the sentiments of the local population towards evacuees, including those of Jewish nationality.
The information potential of sources on the Soviet period allows us to study such an aspect as the problem of anti-Semitism. Basically, this aspect is reflected in the documents of the funds of local party bodies: the Perm Regional Committee of the CPSU (GANIOPD PO.F.Yu5), the Sverdlovsk Regional Committee of the CPSU (ODOOSO.F.4), the Sverdlovsk Regional Committee of the Komsomol (TsDOOSO.F.61) . Among these documents are reports from secretaries of party cells of enterprises and organizations on cases of anti-Semitism (1920-30s), reports from secretaries of party organizations on consumer services for the evacuated population (1941-1945), information letters from local regional committees of the CPSU to the CPSU Central Committee about reactions of the population to the “Doctors' Plot” (1953), etc.
A large array of documents is represented by personal files of people of Jewish nationality who lived and worked in the Urals. In the collection of the Central DOOSO (funds of local party committees) these are mainly documents of Jewish members of the CPSU(b)-CPSU, employees of the administrative apparatus and some mass professions. Personal files contain a wide range of historical and biographical information and make it possible to trace the fates of specific people in connection with historical events. In the dissertation work, this source is used as illustrative material in analyzing the social composition of the Jewish population of the Urals.
In addition, the study used the personal files of Jews convicted during the years of Stalin’s repressions of 1937-38 (collection of the State Academy of Agrarian Society and the State Administrative Society of the Russian Federation). Although the dissertation does not aim to specifically study the national aspect of political repression, these sources are used to clarify issues such as the migration of Jews of foreign citizenship to the Urals in the 1930s. and the future fate of this category of migrants. The personal files of repressed Jewish foreigners include a questionnaire of the person under investigation containing biographical data, as well as court and investigation materials (interrogation protocols, indictment, verdict of the “special troika”),
The dissertation work also used scientific publications of documents from the central archives. These are documents that reveal the features of the national and cultural policy of the Soviet state, the attitude of the authorities to the “Jewish” issue.” Among them is a recording of a conversation between N. S. Khrushchev and a delegation of the Progressive Workers' Party of Canada, during which the situation of the Jewish population in the USSR was discussed. Problems of emigration of the Jewish population from the Soviet Union in the 1970s. were reflected in the publication of notes and certificates from the KGB and the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR to the CPSU Central Committee. Of great interest are also the publications of memoranda of the chairmen of the Council for Religious Affairs under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. They contain information about the state of Jewish religious communities during the Great Patriotic War.
In general, it can be stated that office documentation is one of the most important sources on the topic under study; its information potential is very high and allows for a comprehensive, comprehensive study of most aspects of the history of the Jewish population in the Urals.
Statistical sources are widely used in the work to study the demographic characteristics of the Jewish population. These include the population censuses of the Russian Empire and the USSR (1897, 1920, 1923, 1937,
1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989). In addition, the dissertation uses data from administrative and police records of the population of the Perm province and labor statistics data (1950-1970s).
Statistical sources include information on the size of the Jewish population, its distribution, proportion, social, professional, class, gender and age composition, marriage rate, literacy level, degree of linguistic acculturation, etc. The study of this type of sources allows us to solve a significant part of the problems posed in the dissertation.
The specificity of statistical sources is associated with a certain degree of inaccuracy or incompleteness of information. This applies primarily to population statistics in the pre-Soviet period. Firstly, statistical accounting in the 19th century. overall it had many significant shortcomings. Secondly, the definition of ethnicity was based on confessional characteristics (in the official terminology of the 19th and early 20th centuries, “Jew” meant “Jew”), which means that baptized Jews were included in the Orthodox population. However, statistics from the pre-Soviet period are an important source on numbers, distribution, share, etc. Jewish population of the region.
Information about the quantitative characteristics of the Jewish population in the Urals is presented in a number of reference publications and dictionaries (V. Vesnovsky, P. Golubev, X. Mosel, P. Semenov, etc.). As a rule, these data are obtained during the current administrative and police records. The results of the 10th population audit of 1857 in the Perm province were published in P. Golubev’s reference book. The most informative source is the First General Census of the Russian Empire in 1897. It should be noted that by the time of the 1897 census, the Jewish diaspora of the Urals was already sufficiently formed, acquired its characteristic features, and, therefore, analysis of the data from this source allows us to trace all the specific features Jewish Diaspora. The 1897 population census provides the researcher with very detailed information about the size of the Jewish population, its distribution and proportion, social, professional, class, gender and age composition, marriage rate, literacy level, degree of linguistic acculturation, etc. Despite the fact that the census results have some defects, this source is indispensable when studying the local characteristics of the Jewish population.
As for the statistical accounting of the Jewish population during the Soviet period, it also did not cover the entire number of this ethnic group. Since self-awareness was used as a criterion for determining nationality during the All-Union population censuses (i.e., the nationality was indicated by the subject of the survey), assimilated Jews were counted as representatives of other nationalities. Another drawback of the All-Union population census data is their incomparability. Since the administrative-territorial division of the Urals underwent a number of changes in its development (in 1918, 1919, 1923, 1930, 1934, 1938, 1941), attempts to trace the dynamics of the Jewish population within the boundaries of any territory over a long period of time cannot guarantee obtaining reliable results. With a high degree of confidence, we can only compare data from the 1959-1989 censuses, because During this time, the administrative-territorial division of the Urals remained unchanged. In addition, in the published materials of the All-Union population censuses of 1939 and 1959. Ashkenazi Jews and other subethnic groups of the Jewish population (Mountain, Georgian, Crimean, Central Asian Jews) are not separated into different categories, which makes it difficult to compare the data from these censuses with subsequent ones, where Jews of Ashkenazi origin were counted separately from other groups.
The information from the All-Union Population Censuses is less detailed than the data from the First General Population Census of 1897. The development of results at a national level usually included numbers, proportions, gender composition and information about the native language. On the other hand, such unification of data makes it possible to identify the dynamics of the main demographic indicators of the Jewish population of the Urals.
In addition to published statistical sources (see above), the work also uses unpublished data on the statistics of the Jewish population of the Urals during the Soviet period. Among them are the results of the All-Union Population Census of 1937 (the so-called “repressed census”, the results of which were published only in brief) and the All-Union Population Census of 1939. This source belongs to the fund of the Russian State Archive of Economics “Central Statistical Office (CSO) under the Council Ministers of the USSR" (F.1562-r). The 1937 population census was involved in the study to study such an aspect as the migration of Jews of foreign citizenship to the Urals in the 1930s. It contains information about foreign citizens of Jewish nationality who were on the territory of the USSR at the time of the census, indicating their location, citizenship and gender. The 1939 census data for the Molotov and Sverdlovsk regions includes information on the size, proportion of the Jewish population, its gender and age composition and native language.
The study also used documents from the fund of the statistical department of the Sverdlovsk region of the Central Statistical Office under the Council of Ministers of the USSR (GASO.F.1813-r). These are annual reports of scientific institutions and organizations of the Sverdlovsk region for the 1950-70s. on the number and composition of specialists. It is important that this source includes information about the national composition of scientists, which to some extent fills the gaps in the study of the employment structure of Jews in the Urals.
Periodicals include materials from local pre-revolutionary newspapers “Ural Duma”, “Ekaterinburg Week”, “Ekaterinburg Diocesan Gazette”, “Zauralsky Krai”, “Ural”, “Uralskaya Zhizn”, “Uralsky Krai”. This source mainly contains information from local chronicles or correspondence, as well as publications of legislative provisions regarding the Jewish population. The advantage of the source lies in the relevance of the published information and its detail. This information reflects the most diverse aspects of the life of the Jewish diaspora in the region: features of migration, economic, cultural, social, religious activities, the legal status of Jews, etc. Periodicals, in addition, are an indicator of the spread of anti-Semitic sentiments in society, therefore, can serve as a source for the study of anti-Semitism in the Urals. However, this is precisely why one should approach with great caution the assessments given in periodicals to events related to the Jewish population, because The period to which this source refers is characterized by an increase in anti-Jewish sentiment at the public and state levels.
Another set of sources consists of various reference publications published in the 19th and early 20th centuries, including trade and industrial directories and address calendars. In addition to information about the size of the Jewish population of the Urals (see above), they contain valuable information about the occupations, social, cultural and religious activities of Jewish residents of the Perm province. Similar information is presented in reference and statistical publications of the Soviet period.
Works of memoirs and fiction include the novel “The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story “The Jew” by D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak. The novel by A. I. Herzen describes the writer’s meeting with the stage of Jewish boys - cantonists. The story of the famous Ural writer is dedicated to the friend of D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, the doctor B. I. Kotelyansky, who lived in the second half of the 19th century. in Yekaterinburg. These works not only reflect the atmosphere of the era, but also convey specific historical realities associated with the life of the Jewish population of the Urals.
Let us summarize some of the results of the review of historiography and sources on the topic of the dissertation work. The presence of a number of studies devoted to the history of the population of Russia and the USSR in general and the history of the Jewish population of our country in particular makes it possible to identify the main patterns
27 historical development of this ethnic group, which is important when studying regional groups of the Jewish diaspora in Russia and the USSR. To some extent, these patterns are covered in publications on the history of the Jewish population of the Urals. But since in general the issues of the history of the Jewish population of the region are poorly reflected in the literature, the sources acquire particular importance and significance. They contain rich factual material on the basis of which one can explore the main trends in the historical development of the Jewish diaspora in the Urals and fully solve the problems posed in this study.
Conclusion of scientific work dissertation on the topic "The Jewish population of the Urals in the 19th-20th centuries."
These conclusions are confirmed by data on the demographic development of the Jewish population of the Russian Empire as a whole. The birth rate of the Jewish population, very high until the middle of the 19th century, began to decline sharply by the end of the century, and at the beginning of the 20th century. was one of the lowest in Russia. In 1896-1897 it was 36.0% for the Jewish population, and 50.0% for the country's population on average. At the same time, the infant mortality rate among Jews per thousand children under the age of one year was 130.4 (among Orthodox Christians - 282 .8, Catholics - 149.0, Mohammedans - 166.4).
When analyzing census data on the age composition of the Jewish population, attention is also drawn to the low proportion of age groups aged 40 years and older. Using the terminology of E. Rosset, we can say that the Jewish population of the province was in the stage of demographic youth (the proportion of people over 60 years old was less than 8%). The gap between the rates for the Jewish population and the population of the province as a whole was 2.6% in the age group 40-49 years, 1.6% in the age group 50-59 years and 2.7% in the age group 60 years and older (see table). Table 4). It is characteristic that, according to the average life expectancy of Jews at the end of the 19th century. second only to Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians: it was 36.6 years for men and 41.4 for women (for Russians 27.5 and 29.8, respectively, for Ukrainians 36.3 and 36.8, for Belarusians 35.5 and 36.8) . The mortality rate of the Jewish population in 1896-1897 was. 18% against the national average of 32%. In addition, the Jewish population was also distinguished by a lower proportion of people suffering from diseases and severe physical ailments. In the country as a whole, this figure for Jews was 3.27 per 1 thousand people. versus 4.17 per 1 thousand people. in the population as a whole. , in the Perm province, respectively, 2.8 per 1 thousand people. and 5.0 per 1 thousand people.
Thus, the small percentage of older generations in the Jewish population of the Urals was not a consequence of the high mortality rate. This peculiarity of the age structure is explained rather by the fact that the bulk of the Jews of the Ural diaspora arrived in the region in the 1860s. and at the time of the census had not yet reached 40 years of age (young people traditionally take the most active part in migration processes). In addition, there were administrative obstacles to elderly people settling outside the Pale of Settlement. According to Article 3 of the explanation to Art. 13 app. to Art. 68 “Charter on Passports” ed. 1903, the right of residence outside the “Pale of Settlement” under the Jewish head of the family (under his care and on the same passport with him) was enjoyed by: wife, sons until adulthood, daughters until marriage, brothers and sisters until adulthood and in the event that parents are no longer alive. Parents were allowed to live only if, due to health reasons or old age, they could not cope without outside care and at the same time did not have the means to live in the Pale of Settlement. To settle elderly parents with their children outside the Pale of Settlement, special permission from the Ministry of Internal Affairs was required.
The First General Population Census also provides information, very important for demographic research, on the composition of the Jewish population of the Perm province by gender in ten-year age groups (see Table 5).
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73. GAS0.F.62.0p. 1.D.524.L. 136
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75. Ibid. Op.2.D.40, 42, 46,48,49,52; Right there. Op.11.D.184
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80. GAP0.F.36.0pL.D.Z.L,16 ob-17.21.50; Ibid.Op.Z.D.1.L,50
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83. Kupovetsky M.S. Jewish population of Moscow (XV-XX centuries) // Ethnic groups in the cities of the European part of the USSR M, 1987 - P.61
84. GAS0.F.62.0p.1. D.435.L.21-21 vol.60. Ibid.D.87.L.27-27 vol.
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86. GAPO.F.Zb.Op. 11.D.6.L. 1.563. Ibid.L. 13-14 rev.,62
87. Ibid.L. 18, 22-24, 26-27 vol.65. Ibid.L.42-43, 76
88. Ibid. Op.Yu.D.19.L.194; F.65.0p.5.D.156.L.173
89. Ibid.F.65, Op.5.D. 156.L. 17068. Ibid. Op.Z.D.596.L.1
90. Ibid.L.20-21; GAS0.F.24.0P.32.D.4511.L.51
91. GAPO.F.65, Op.5.D. 156.L. 170-171; Ibid.F.146.0p.1.D.21.L.67-70, 80-88
93. Voroshilin S.I. Temples of Ekaterinburg, - Ekaterinburg, 1995.-P.95
94. GAP0.F.36.0p.Z.D.2.L. 131-137
96. GAP0.F.36.0p.Z.D.56.L.22, 78
97. Ibid.F.43.0p.1.D.1420.L.2, 7
98. Migrations, numbers and placement of Jews during the Soviet period
99. Members M.A. Jews // Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia, - P.156
100. Israel: a people in the diaspora // Concise Jewish Encyclopedia (KEE). - Jerusalem: Ed. Society for the Study of Jewish Communities, 1986, - T.Z. - P.318
101. GASO.F.17r.Op. 1.D.838.L.229-229 vol.
102. Documentation Center for Public Organizations of the Sverdlovsk Region (TsTs00S0).F.76.0p.1.D.427.L.15-15 vol.
103. GAPO.F.945r.Op.1.D.4. L. 120,129; D.13.L.1-2
104. Russian Center for the Storage and Use of Documents of Contemporary History (RCKHIDNI).F.445.0p. 1. D.31.L. 10; GASO.F. 17 rub. Op. 1.D.821.L.27-287. GAPO.F.484r.Op.2.D.64.L.7
105. RCKHIDNI.F.445. Op. I. D. 31L 8a-8a ob9. KomZESHSEE.-T.4.-P.434
106. State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF).F.9498r.Op.1.D.161.L.47-48 vol.,70
107. GARF.F.9498r.Op.1.D.261.L.17; GAPO.F.2Yur.Op.1.D.12.L.2,12; D.25.L.36; DAL. 13812. GAP0.F.2Yur.0p.1.D.4.L.113
108. GARF.F.9498r.Op.1.D.311.L.Z
109. Ibid. D.161.L.6.29; D.261.L.7, 14-15,17; GAPO.F.2Yur.Op.1.D.4.L.138; TsD00S0.F.4.0P. 10.D.695.L.71 -72
110. GALO.F.210r.Op. 1.D.6.L. 17
111. Russian State Archive of Economics (RGAE).F.5244.0p.1.D.238.L.89-90
112. Kozlov V.I. Nationalities of the USSR: Ethnodemographic review M. Finance and Statistics, 1982.-P.141
113. GARF.F.5515.Op.ZZ.D.26.L.70
114. Ibid. Op. 23.D. 1.L. 1; D41.L.21-22; D.42.L.5
115. RCKHIDNI.F.17.0p.120.D.35.L.7-8
116. Zhuravlev S.V., Tyazhelnikova B.S. Foreign colony in Soviet Russia in the 1920-1930s (Problem statement and research methods) // Otech. history.-1994.-Sh.-S.184
117. Irbe K.Zh. International connections of the Urals and foreign workers in the pre-war five-year plans // Industrial Ural: Abstracts of reports of a regional scientific and practical conference. 1996, Ekaterinburg: USTU, 1997.-P.37
118. RGAE.F.5244, Op. 1.D.553.L.77
119. TsDOOSO.FAOp. 11.D556.L. 126
120. Ibid.Op.10.D.696.L48;Op.11.D.556.L.88,91,98,108,126-127; Op.13.D.150.L.5-12; F.88.0p.1. D. 176. L.2-8; D.217. L 4-5
121. Zhuravlev S. V., Tyazhelnikova V. S. Decree. cit.-S. 181
122. GARF.F.5515.Op.23.D.60.LL;GASO.F.693-r.Op.1.D.1.L.41,60,68,98,103,104; TsD00S0.F.4.0P. 10.D.697.L. 1
123. RGAE.F.1562.0p.329.D.148.L. 1-109; D149.L.1-136
124. State archive of administrative bodies of the Sverdlovsk region (GAA0S0).F.1.0p.2.D.475Yu.L.Z,475
125. Petrov N.V., Roginsky A.B. Polish operation of the NKVD 1937-1938 - P.40
126. GAAOSO.F. 1.Op.2.D.ZZ 19.2679.1243; State Archive for the Affairs of Political Repressed Persons of the Perm Region (GADPRPO).F. l.On. 1. D. 1875.2339
127. GAAOSO.F. 1 Op.2.D.34114.T. 1.L.311-321
128. All-Union Population Census of 1937. Brief results M.: Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1991- P.91-92
129. Jewish Refugees from Poland in Belarus, 1939-1940//Jews in Eastern Europe.-Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1997.-No. 1(32). pp.46-47; Catastrophe//KEE.-T.4.-S. 142,166
130. Guryanov AE. Polish special settlers in the USSR in 1940-1941. // Repressions against Poles and Polish citizens, - M.: Zvenya, 1997, - Issue. 1,- S. 11841. Ibid.-S. 120
131. Bugai N.F. 20-50s: resettlement and deportation of the Jewish population in the USSR//National History, - 1993.-No. 4.-S. 179
132. Zemskov V.N. Special settlers (according to documents of the NKVD-MVD of the USSR)//SOCIS.-1990,-No. 11.-P.7
133. GARF.F.9479.0p.1.D.61.L.111
134. Parsadanova B.S. Op. op. P.37-38
135. Motrevich V.P. Foreign citizens in the Urals in the 40s // The Urals in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 - Yekaterinburg: Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History and Archeology, 1995, - P.97
136. Paletskikh N.P. Op. op. P.338 See also: Goldstein G. Pages of our life // Menorah. -1996.-No. 11 -12.-S. 4
137. GASO.F.693-r.Op.2.D.Z.L.Z-4; State Archive of Contemporary History and Social and Political Movements of the Perm Region (GANIOPD P0).F.Yu5.0p.6.D.216.L.8; D.224L 13-14; Op.7.D.71.L.45-47; D.301.L.ZZ
138. Kupovetsky M.S. Human losses of the Jewish population in the post-war borders of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War // Western European University in Moscow, - 1995 .- No. 2 - P. 141
139. See: Arad I. The attitude of the Soviet leadership towards the Holocaust//Vestn.Eur. University in Moscow.-1995.-No. 2(9). pp. 17, 22-23; Disaster//KEE. - T.4.- P. 167; Schweibish Ts. Decree. op. - P.41, 48, 50-52
140. Kornilov G.E. Ural village and war. Problems of demographic development. -Ekaterinburg: Uralagropress, 1993. P.99
141. GASO.F.540-r.Op. 1.D.94.L. 10;f.2508-r.0p. 1.D.20.L.97; D.84.L.2-23
142. Wolfson A.V. Jews of Uralmash during the Great Patriotic War. Documentary essays, Ekaterinburg: Lavka, 1998.-P.32
143. GASO.F.540-r.Op. 1.D.91.L.23-73 rev.; Wolfson A.V. Decree op. -S.ZZ
144. Kornilov G.E. Op. op. P.98; Potemkina M.N. The problem of evacuation and the evacuated population in the Urals during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. (Historical-party aspect): Diss. . Ph.D. ist. Sci. - Chelyabinsk, 1994. -P.204
145. Kornilov G.E. Op. op. P.101,109; GASO.F.2508-r.Op.1.D.23.L.53
146. GASO.F.2508-r.Op. 1.D.92. L.7-7ob.61. Arad I. Decree op. pp.29,31
147. GARF.F.9401-r.Op.2.D. 105.L.21
148. Bugai N.F. Decree cit.-S. 180; GARF.FA-327.0p.1 D.5.L.255
149. GARF.F.5446.0P.47.D.63.L.5-10
150. GARF.FA-327.0p.1.D.14.L.24-26,33-34; GASO.F.2508-r.Op. 1.D.87.L.2266. Bugai NF.Indicative op. p. 184
151. Nov A., Newt D. The Jewish population of the USSR: demographic development and professional employment//Jews in Soviet Russia (1917-1967).-Jerusalem, 1975 -P. 166
152. Barggale A., Pinkas X. Op. op. pp. 95-96
153. Burshtein A.M., Burshtein B.I. Formation of the Jewish population of the city of Perm.-S.93-94
154. Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia. P.62; Samuels R. Along the paths of Jewish history. -M.: Library-aliya, 1991.-P.356
155. Ryvkina R.V. Jews in modern Russia // Social sciences and modernity. 1996.-As5.-C.55
156. Bargteil A., Pinkas X. Op. op. P. 1761. To Chapter 2
157. Fertility, mortality and age-sex structure
158. GASO.F. 122.0p.1.D.48.L.67
159. Burshtein A.M., Burshtein B.I. Formation of the Jewish population of the city of Perm. P. 92
160. GASO.F.122.0p.1.D.29.L.50; Ibid.D40.L,152: Ibid.D.42.L.116 vol.; Right there. D.44.L.188
161. GASO.F. 122.0p.1.D.ZZ.L.57; D.36.L.77; D.38.L.1 rev.; D.40.L.238 rev.; D.42.L.245; D44.L.39, 63, 145, 164, 177
162. GASO.F. 122.0p.1.D38.L.1 rev.
163. GASO.F. 122.0p. 1.D. 14.L.8-8 vol.; D17.L.101 rev.; D.23.L.103 rev.; D.ZZ.L.12, 18
164. GASO.F. 122.0p. 1.D.23.L.55-58
165. Mosel X. Materials for the geography and statistics of Russia, collected by officers of the General Staff. Perm province. - St. Petersburg, 1864, -4.1. P.292
166. Memorial book of the Perm province for 1863, published under the Perm provincial government by the editor of the unofficial part of the Perm provincial statements S.S. Penn pp. 102-105
167. Calculated according to: First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897, XXXGPer mekaya province, - P. 29012. Russia//KEE.-T.7.-P.383
168. Beizer M. Jews in St. Petersburg. Israel. Library - aliyah, 1990. - P. 106
169. Rosset E. The process of population aging. Demographic study. M.: Statistics, 1968. - P.69
170. Chernyak A.M. Op. op. -S.21816. Russia//KEE.-T.7.-P.383
171. Stepanov S.A. Black Hundred in Russia. 1905-1914 M.: Publishing house VZPI, JSC “Rosvuznauka”, 1992.-P.24
172. First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897, XXXGPerm Province.- P. 166
173. GAPO.F.36.0p.Z.D.2.L.88,120
174. See: Age pyramid // Population: Encyclopedic Dictionary / Chief editor G.G. Melikyan. Editorial board: A.Ya.Kvasha, A.A.Tkachenko, N.N.Shapovalova, D.K.Shelestov, - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1994640 e.-S. 5221. Russia//KEE. T.7. - P.382
175. Population of the USSR over 70 years old. M.: Science, 1988. - P. 78
176. First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897. XXXGPerm Province.-S. 158-159
177. GAP0.F.37.0p.6.D.YU92.L. 186-189, 190-193 vol.25. Ibid.L. 14-28.29 rev.-40
178. See: Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia. P. 17; Russia//KEE. - Jerusalem: Ed. Society for the Study of Jewish Communities, 1996. - T.7.- P.382
179. Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia. -WITH. 18
180. Demography//KEE. T.2. -P.321; National policy of the CPSU (b) in numbers. - M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, 1930. - P.40; Peoples of Russia. - P.20
181. GAPO.F.484-r.Op.2.D.64.L.7
182. Kozlov V.I. Nationalities of the USSR. Ethnodemographic review M.: Finance and Statistics, 1982.-P. 154
183. RGAE.F.1562.0p.336.D.324.L.732. Ibid.
184. RGAE.F.1562.0p.336.D.306.L.8; D.323.L.8;D.324.L.6
185. Kupovetsky M.S. Human losses of the Jewish population in the post-war borders of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War // Western European University in Moscow, - 1995.- No. 2-P.152
186. Sinelnikov A. Why is Russian Jewry disappearing?//Vestn. Heb. University in Moscow. -1996.- No. 2(12). -P.51-67
187. See: Demography/LSEE. T.2. - P.319; Kotov V.I. Ethnodemographic situation in the RSFSR in the 60-80s // Domestic history. - 1992. - No. 5. - P.40; Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia. - P.20
188. Kupovetsky M.S. Human losses of the Jewish population in the post-war borders of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War // Western European University in Moscow. -1995.-No. 2. -WITH. 148
189. Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia. -P.21
190. Results of the 1970 All-Union Population Census. - M.: Statistics, 1973. T.4. -P.373
191. Ryvkina R.V. Jews in modern Russia//Social sciences and modernity. -1996,- No. 5.-P.48-49
192. Burshtein A.M., Burshtein B.I. Formation of the Jewish population of the city of Perm. -P.94
193. Results of the 1959 All-Union Population Census. RSFSR. -M.: Gosstatizdat, 1963. -P.326; Results of the 1979 All-Union Population Census. -M., 1989. T.4.-P.305,336
194. Kupovetsky M.S. Jewish population of Moscow (XV-XX centuries). - P.67
195. Chernyak A.M. Decree op.- P.220-221
196. Sinelnikov A. Why is Russian Jewry disappearing? // Vesgn. Heb. University in Moscow. -1996,- No. 2(12). -P.55
197. Razinsky G.V. Jews of the Russian province: touches to the social portrait // SOCIS. 1997. No. 10. P. 37, 3948. Russia//KEE. T.7. - P.402
198. Features of social composition
199. Bromley S.V. Ethnosocial processes: theory, history, modernity. M.: Nauka, 1987. - P.202-204; Starovoitova G.V. Ethnic group in a modern Soviet city. - L.: Science, 1987. - P.78-79
200. Sinelnikov A. Socio-demographic consequences of restricting marriages between Jews in the German states in the 17th-19th centuries // Vestn. Heb. University in Moscow. -1993.-No.3.-S. 34
201. Residence // Jewish Encyclopedia. T.7, - P.591
202. Jews // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. - St. Petersburg, 1893. T.P. - P. 454-455
203. GAS0.F.621.0p.1.D.255.L.153; Right there. F.35.0p.1.D.464.L173; See also: Kupovetsky M.S. Jewish population of Moscow (XV-XX centuries) pp. 60-62
204. GASO.F.35.0p.1.D.563.T.1.L.75.90
205. Ibid. F.122.0p.1.D.17.L.Yu1 ob.; D.38.L.122 about
206. Ibid.F.122.0p.1.D 14.L.1 vol.; D25.L.9 ob.;D.44.L.152; D.38.L.85 rev.
207. Flisfish E. Cantonists. Tel Aviv: Effect Publishing, B.g. - pp. 228-229
208. GAS0.F.122.0p.1.D.166 rev.-167
210. Stepanov S.A. Black Hundred in Russia. 1905-1914 M.: Publishing house VZPI, JSC "Rosvuznauka", 1992.-P.45-46
211. Russia//Jewish Encyclopedia.-T. 13.-P.659-654
212. Jews // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. T. 11.-P.460
213. Stepanov S.A. Decree cit. - pp. 45-46
214. GAS0.F.62.0p.1.D.524.L.138 vol., 140 vol.
215. Sorkin Yu.E. “Heirug” means “freedom” // Tikvateinu.- 1996.- No. 7-8,- P.2; Ekaterinburg week, - 1893.-October 17; Ibid. - 1894. - July 24
217. GAPO.F.35.0p.1.D.266.L.40 rev.-68
218. GASO.F.8, Op. 1.D. 1989.L.49-50
219. Ibid.F.8.0p.1.D. 1988.L.3-4 vol., 38-39
221. Ekaterinburg and the Urals. Trade and industrial directory for 1914 - Ekaterinburg, 1914.-P.317
223. GAS0.F.621.0P.1.D.255.L.493-49426. Ibid.L.827. Ibid.D.258.L.26 vol.,28
224. Ibid. F.62, Op. 1. D.87. L. 1-12; 34 rev.
225. Ibid.F.621.0p.1.D.238.L.1330. Ibid.D.255.L.38,4531. Ibid.L.515-518 vol.
226. Ibid. F.62, Op. 1.D.87.L.7-40
227. Ibid.F.621.0p.1.D.138.L. 12-15 rev.
228. Ibid.F.24.0p.32.D.4560.L.8-9
229. Ibid. Op. 24. D. 8165. L. 10-1136. Ibid.L.1-9;L.54-54 vol.
230. Ibid.F.24.0p.32.D.4560.L. 1 rev.
231. Ibid. Op. 23. D. 393L 13.15-15 vol.
232. Ibid. Op. 32. D. 4560. L. 1 ob.-2
233. First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897, XXXGPerm Province. - P. 186
234. GASO.F.24.0p.23.D.393.L.20-22, 28-31, 51-54
235. Ibid. Op. 24. D. 8165. L. 22-23
236. All of Yekaterinburg. Trade and industrial directory for 1910 - Ekaterinburg, 1910.-S. 128
237. GAS0.F.621.0p.1.D.255.L.212-239, 535-539 about
238. Ibid.F.62.0p. 1.D.435.L.26-35
239. Sorkin Yu.E. Famous Jewish doctors from Yekaterinburg. Biographical reference book. Ekaterinburg: Publishing house. gas. "Stern", 1997.- P.60-61
240. GASO.F.621.Op. 1. D.258. L.34-35
241. Barggale A., Pinkas X. Op.cit. - P. 175
243. Ekaterinburg week. 1895.-Sept. 24; Ural region, - 1909.-February 28; GASO.F. 11.Op. 1.D 5748. L.32 vol.
244. Ekaterinburg and the Urals. Trade and industrial directory for 1914 - P.308
245. TsOOSO. F.6. OpL.D.1493.L.2 vol.
246. GAPO.F. 115 rub.Op. 1. D. 101.L. 1-3; Ibid.D. 102. L. 1,4,6
247. GAPO.F. 115r.Op.1.D.146.L.46-48
248. Israel: people in the diaspora//KEE.-T, 3.-P.318; See also: Social portrait of a dispossessed person (based on materials from the Urals): Sat. documents / Comp. E.V. Bayda, V.M. Kirillov, L.N. Mazur and others; Rep. ed. T.I. Slavko. - Ekaterinburg: Ural State University, 1996.-P. 105-106
249. Israel: people in the diaspora//KEE. T. 3.-S. 320
250. National policy of the CPSU (b) in figures M., 1930 - P.282
251. GASO.F.233r.Op. 1.D.1158.L.10-11
252. Nov A., Newt DUkaz.soch.-S. 186
253. Israeli people in the Diaspora//KEE.-T.3.-P.320
254. RyvkinaRV. .Jews in the post-Soviet Russia! - who are they? - M, Publishing House URSS, 1996.-P.61
255. The province in numbers. Monthly bulletin of the Yekaterinburg Gubernia Statistical Bureau, -1923.-No. 3(11).-P. 12
256. National policy of the CPSU (b) in numbers. pp.290-29164. Right there. P.284 -285
257. GASO.F.233r.Op.1.D. 1158. L. 10-11
258. Province in numbers, - 1923.-No. 3(11).-P.12
259. TsDOOSO.F.b.Op. 1. D. 1493.L.Z
260. Israel: people in the diaspora//KEE.-T.3.-P.319
261. Nov A., Newt D. Decree. P. 179
262. Wolfson AV. Op. op. P.36-37
263. See: Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia.-P.456; Radaev V. Ethnic entrepreneurship: world experience and Russia // Polis. 1993.- No. 5.- P.83 - 84
264. Nov A., Newt D. Decree cit. - P. 18973. Ibid. -WITH. 190
265. GASO.F.1813-r.Op.11.D.116.L.2-3 vol., D.588.L.5 vol.
266. Ibid. D.514.L.39 rev.-166 rev.
267. Ibid. L.49 vol. 72 rev., 166 rev.
268. Ryvkina R.V. Jews in post-Soviet Russia. P.65-6678. Right there.
269. Razinsky G.V. Jews of the Russian province: touches to the social portrait // SOCIS. 1997. Ш0.С.36-381. To Chapter 3
270. Traditional culture of Jews in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
271. See: Bromley Yu.V. Ethnosocial processes: theory, history, modernity. M.: Nauka, 1987. - P.74; Kazmina O.E., Puchkov P.I. Fundamentals of ethnodemography: Textbook. allowance. - M. . Science, 1994. - P.90-91; Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia. - -P.461,466
272. For more details, see: Jew//KEE.-T.2.-P.405-411; Judaism//KEE.-T.Z.-S.975-977
273. See: Halacha//KEE.-T.2.-P.7-16; Pilkington S.M. Judaism / Transl. from English EGBogdanova. -M. FAIR PRESS, 1998. - P.74
274. See: Members M.A. Jews//Peoples of Russia. Encyclopedia.-S. 152-153; Hebrew language//KEE.-T.2.-P.631-639; Yiddish language//KEE.-T.2.-P.664-671
275. See: Members M.A. Jews // Peoples of Russia. Encyclopedia - P. 154; Jews // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron - St. Petersburg, 1893. T.P. - P.454; Judaizers//KEE.-T.2.-P.508-510
276. Ginzburg S.M. Decree, pp. 55-58; Flisfish E. Op. op. - P.222-225
277. Ginzburg S.M. Op. op. P.60, 78-79
278. GASO.F. 122.Op. 1.D. 12.L.93; D.14.L.5ob., 27,59,75,119; D.17.L.8, 47 rev.; D.20.L.38, 42; D.25.L 3 rev., 65.89; D.36.L.43; D.38.L.7 rev., 158
279. See: Kantonisgy//KEE.-T.4.-P.77; GASO.F.24.0p.23.D.7190.L.8-8 vol.
280. GASO.F.43 Op.2.D. 1518. L.2 vol.; Right there. F.24.0p.23.D.7190.L1 rev.
281. GASO.F.43.Op.2.D. 1386.L.1-7 vol.; Right there. F.122.0p.1.D.14.L22
282. GASO.F. 122.0P.1.D.36.L.43-43 vol.13. Right there. D. 12.L.62 vol.14. Right there. D.23.L. 19-20 rev.
283. See for example: GASO.F. 122.0p.1.D25.L.21; Ibid.D.27.L.6; Ibid.D.29.L10 about
284. GASO.F.122.0pL.D.23.L.20ob.17. Ibid. D.36.L125
285. GASO.F.35.0p.1.D.464.L.130,134
286. Ibid. F.43.0p.2.D. 1366.L.1-6
287. Ibid. F. 122.0l. 1D42.L.116 vol., 144 vol.
288. Ibid. F.35.0p.1.D662.L.158,179
289. Bargteil A., Pinkas X. Op. op., - P.172
290. GAS0.F.25.0p. 1.D.2398.L.2-14
291. Bargteil A., Pinkas X. Op.cit. - P. 174
292. See: City of Yekaterinburg. Collection of historical, statistical and reference information on the city, with an address index and with the addition of some information on the Ekaterinburg district. - Ekaterinburg: Publishing House of II Simanov, 1889.-P.944
293. Vesnovsky V.A. All of Yekaterinburg. Directory-yearbook - Ekaterinburg, 1903 - P.227
295. Cities of Russia in 1910.-P.734
296. Jews // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron.- T. 11.- P.456
297. Moselle X. Materials for the geography and statistics of Russia, collected by officers of the General Staff. Perm province.-SP6.D864.-Part 2.-P.427
298. Bargteil A., Pinkas X. Op. op. P.174; GAP0.F.37.0p.6.D. 1092.LL 89
299. Ural commercial and industrial address-calendar for 1907, p.53
300. Address-calendar of the Perm province for 1910. Perm. Publishing house of the Perm Provincial Statistical Committee, 1909. - P. 179
302. City of Yekaterinburg. A collection of historical, statistical and reference information on the city, with an address index and with the addition of some information on the Yekaterinburg district. P.944
303. Pilkington S.M. Decree cit. - S.13538. Ibid.-S. 119.169
304. Perm province // Semenov P. Geographical and statistical dictionary of the Russian Empire. - St. Petersburg, 1865 T.4.-P.61
305. Review of the Perm province for 1904. Perm: Typo-lithography of the Provincial Board, 1904. - P.68
306. Review of the Perm province for 1913. Perm: Typolithography of the Provincial Board, 1914.-P. 125
307. GAP0.F.35.0p. 1.D270.L. 1-3
308. Members M.A. Jews // Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia, - P. 155
310. Ekaterinburg week. 1888. - No. 3346. GAPO.F.35.0p.1.D.240.L.63
311. First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897. XXXSherm province, -S. 122-12348. Ibid. -P.98
312. See: Sinelnikov A. Socio-demographic consequences of restricting marriages between Jews in the German states in the 17th-19th centuries // Vesta. Heb. University in Moscow.-1993.-No.3.-P.40-44
313. Demography//KEE.-T.2.-S.Z11
314. First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897 XXXGPerm Province, - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of the Central Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, 1904, - P.98
315. GAS0.F.6.0p.4.D.277.L.1-2 vol., 19-21
316. GAS0.F.6.0p.4.D.87.L. 7,125,172,185,204
317. First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897. XXXZ. Perm province, - P. 27055. Ibid. P.98
318. Ekaterinburg week. 1888. - No. 5
319. GASO.F. 11.0p.5.D.4049.L.17-20 rev., 38A058. GAS0.F.6.0p.4.D.87.L.185
320. See: Flisfish E. Cantonists. Tel Aviv: “Effect Publishing.” - pp. 280-286
321. GAS0.F.6.0p.4.D. 186.L.2 vol. 3 vol.
322. GASO.F. 11.0p.5.D.3960.L6.14-21 rev.
323. GASO.F. 11.0p.5.d.4049. L.38-40,42-42 ob63. Ural. 1905. - 14 Sep.
324. See for example: GAS0.F.6.0p.4.DL86
325. See for example: Beizer M. Decree. op. P.229
326. See: GAP0.F.36.0p.2.DL7,21,22
327. GAP0.F.36.0p.Yu.D.25.L.2-11
328. Voroshilin S.I. Temples of Yekaterinburg. Ekaterinburg, 1995,-P.95
329. GAPO.F.36, Op.4.D.58.L. 1-4
331. See: Mikve//KEE.T.5.S.346-347
333. GASO.F.62, Op. 1.D.599.L 12a, 35-35 rev.
334. Ekaterinburg and the Urals. Trade and industrial directory for 1914. Ekaterinburg, 1914.-P.303
335. Trans-Ural region. -1916. 28 Feb; Right there. - 1916. - April 27, 1977. GAP0.F.36.0p.Z.D.43.L.21
337. Ekaterinburg and the Urals. Trade and industrial directory for 1914. Ekaterinburg, 1914. -P.212
339. GAPO. F.65 .Op. 5.D. 156.L. 171
340. Perm Jewish children's center. 1st year of existence (from February 1, 1916 to December 31, 1916). Perm, 1917. -P.1,12,14
342. Development of assimilation processes during the Soviet period
343. Decrees of Soviet power (October 25, 1917 March 16, 1918). - M.: Politizdat, 1957.-P.39-40
344. Jewish Commissariat//KEE. T.2. - P.421-422; Evsektsiya // Ibid. - P.464
345. Gitelman Ts. Decree op. P.40
346. Ibid.; Jewish Commissariat//KEE. T.2. - P.422
347. See: GAPO.F.945-r.Op. 1 D.2.L.98. Right there. D. 10.L. 1419. Ibid.D. 12. L.9,43,50
348. Ibid. D. 12.L 8.49; D. 15.L. 1311. Ibid.D. 12.L. 16-17,2012. Right there. .D.4.L.17013. Ibid.D. 10.L.47-47 vol.
349. GAPO.F.115-r.0p.1.D.146.L1,44-48,143
350. GASO.F. Yu2-r.Op. 1 D.502.L.8
351. GASO.F.17-r.Op.1.D.821.L25,100,16517. Ibid.D.838.L.223
352. Ibid. D.821.L. 165-166; D.838. L.220-220 rev.
353. Ibid.D.821.L.6-6 vol., 27; RCKHIDNI.F.445.0p.1.D.31.L.10 vol.
354. TsD00S0.F.76.0p. 1.D.427. L. 15-15 vol.
355. GAPO.F.23-r.Op. 1.D. 176.L.42;GASO.F. 17-r.Op.1.D.838.L.229;F. 102-r.Op.1.D.502.L.8
356. GAPO.F.945-r.Op. 1. D.2. L 38 D.4.L. 100;D.6. L.9;D. 11 L If APO.F.23-r.Op.1.D.176.L44
357. Lenishrad//KEE.T.4.S.778; Moscow//KEE.T.5.S.477
358. All-Union Population Census of 1926. M.: Publishing house. TsSU USSR, 1928.-T.4.-S. 103-134
359. RGAE.F.1562.0p, 336.D.306.L.8; D. 323.L8-9; D.324.L.7
360. See: Zhiromskaya V.B. Believers and non-believers in 1937: demographic characteristics // Population of Russia and the USSR: new sources and research methods. -Ekaterinburg, 1993. -P.28
361. GASO.F. Yu2-r.Op. 1.D.376.L.244
362. GAPO.F. 945-r.Op. 1.D.2.L.3529. Right there. L.27
363. GAPO.F.945-r.Op. 1.D. 10.L. 15231. Ibid.L.55
364. GAPO.F.115-r.Op. 1.D.97.L. 152 -153 vol.
365. RCKHIDNI.F.445.0p.1.D.31.L91 ob34. Right there.
366. GASO.F. 102-r.0p. 1.D.502.L. 1
367. GASO.F.854-r.Op. 1. D.2. L.7, 22, 100; Ibid.F.511-r.Op.1.D.123.L.536, 543, 547, 551, 555
368. GASO.F.854-r.op. 1.D.2.L.26,40,45,159
369. GASO.F. 102-r.Op. 1.D.416.L. 18
370. GASO.F.854-r.Op. 1.D.2.L72 vol. 90.147; Right there. F.575-r.Op.1.D.22.L.14
371. GASO.F. 102-r. Op. 1.D.502.L. 1341. Ibid.D.416.L.6-7
372. Ibid. D.668. L. 12,16,22; Ibid.F.575-r.Op.1.D.22.L.22
373. GASO.F.286-r.Op. 1 D.884.L. 146
374. Ibid. F. Yu2-r.Op. 1 D416.L.745. Ibid.D.502.L.Z46. Right there. L. 8
375. Religious organizations in the USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1943-1945/Otech. Archives.-1995.-No. 3.-P.44-45
376. State and church during the war. Reports of the chairmen of the Council for the Affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Council for Religious Cults under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR//Isg. archive.-1995.-No.4.-S. 134
377. TsD00S0.F.4.0p.58.D. 112.L.238-239; Op.53 D. 111 .L.81
378. Ibid. Op. 53.D. 111.L.81-82
379. Ibid. Op. 47.D. 129.L.126; Op.58.D.112.L.238
380. Ibid. Op.59.D. 110.L.25-26.81
381. Ibid. Op.47.D.109L 126; Op.53.D.111.L.82
382. Ibid.0p.53.D 111.L.81-82; Op.47.D.129.L. 125
383. Ibid. Op.58.D. 112.L.238; Op.59.D1Yu.L.2556. Ibid. Op. 53.D. 111.L.81
384. Ibid. Op.59.D. 110. L.24; Op.53.LONG.L.8258. Ibid. Op.53 D111.L. 110
385. Ibid. Op. 53.D. 111.L.82; Op.58.D.112.L.238; Op.59.D. 110.L.24
386. Ibid. Op. 47.D. 129. L. 12661. Ibid. Op. 59. D. 110.L.2462. Right there. L.68
387. GAPO.F.1204-r.Op. 1.D.5.L.72,123,198,25864. Ibid.D.7.L.237-240
388. GASO.F.286-r.Op. 1.D.2071.L. 1-3
389. Results of the 1959 All-Union Population Census. RSFSR. -M.: Gossgatizdat, 1963. -P.326; Results of the 1970 All-Union Population Census. M.: Statistics, 1973. - T.4. -WITH. 123-130; Results of the 1979 All-Union Population Census. - M., 1989. - T.4. -P.305,326
390. Burshtein A.M., Burshtein B.I. Dynamics of the registered fund of Perm Jews. 1918-1987: Nominee of a small group in a multinational city. - M., 1989 P.126-12768. Right there. P. 132
391. Ryvkina R.V. Jews in modern Russia/Social sciences and modernity. -1996.- No. 5.-P.51-52
392. Razinsky G.V. Decree. cit.//SOCIS.-1997 -No. 10.-P.38
393. Berzin B.Yu., Gushchina AE. Self-awareness of a national (ethnic group). -Ekaterinburg: Ural Personnel Center, 1993. -S. 57, 77
394. Ryvkina P.B. Social types of Jews in modern Russia // Bulletin of the Jewish University in Moscow. -1996. No. 2. - P.41
395. Razinsky GV. Decree. op. -P.38
396. Sinelnikov A. Why is Russian Jewry disappearing?//Vestn. Heb. University in Moscow. -1996,-№2(12). -WITH. 56
397. Anti-Semitism as a factor in ethnic processes
398. Anti-Semitism//KEE.-T.1.-P.141
399. Kozlov V.I. Anti-Semitism // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1970. - T.2. - P.80
400. Dzhunusov M C. Nationalism: Dictionary-reference book.-M. : Publishing house "Slavic dialogue", 1998.-P.34
401. Dzhunusov M.S. Nationalism: Dictionary-reference book. P.277-278
402. See for example: Akhiezer A. Decree cit. - P.98-128; Members M.A. Jews // Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia, - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1994.- P.154-155; Bloody raid//KEE.T.4.S.581-589
403. See: Pipes R. Catherine P and the Jews: The Origins of the Pale of Settlement // Soviet Jewish Affairs, v.5, no.2 (1975): p.l5
404. See for example: Yekaterinburg week. 1881. - No. 24; 1882. - No. 15,21,31, 35
405. See for example: Yekaterinburg week. 1883. - No. 44,48; 1884. - No. 15
406. See: Ekaterinburg week. 1890. - No. 18; 1894. - No. 15
407. See: About the Jewish Faith//Ekaterinburg Diocesan Gazette. 1897. -No. 18; Conversation in the carriage//Ibid. -1914.-No.3
408. GAP0.F.65.0p. 1.D.1385.L. 1-5
409. Pogroms//Jewish Encyclopedia. St. Petersburg, 1912. -T.12.S.618
410. See: Baranov A. 1905 in the Urals. M: Publishing House of the All-Union Society of Political Prisoners and Exiled Settlers, 1929. - P.72-73; History of the Urals during the period of capitalism. -M.: Nauka, 1990; Narsky I.V. Decree. op.,-S. 13-14
411. TsD00S0.F.41.0p.2.D.63.L.1-11, Lisovsky N.K. Down with autocracy! From the history of the revolution of 1905-1907. in the Southern Urals. Chelyabinsk: South Ural Book Publishing House, 1975.-P. 126
412. See for example: The labor movement and the Bolshevik party in 1905 in the Urals. Materials for the anniversary of the 25th anniversary of the revolution of 1905. Sverdlovsk, 1930. - 33rd; Revolution 1905-1907 in the Kama region: Documents and materials. - Molotov, 1955. - 328 p.
413. Plotnikov N.F. Bolsheviks of the mining Urals in three revolutions. -Sverdlovsk, 1990. -P.33-34
414. GASO.F. 180.0p.1.D.208.L. 78,79,156,161; D.211.L.70 rev.
415. Ibid. D.208. L.58, 155 rev.
417. GASO.F. 180.Op.1.D.212.L.99,106; Ural.-1905.-30 oct.
418. GASO.F. 180.0p.1.D.208.L. 165
420. GASO.F. 180.op.1.D.209.L. 132-132 vol.27. Ibid.L.112-112ob.28. Ural.-1905.-29 oct.
421. Narsky I.V. Decree. op. P.42-43
422. GAS0.F.62.0p. 1.D.262.L.4.10
423. GASO.F. 180.0p.1.D.208.L.61; D.211.L.42
424. GASO.F. 180.0p.1.D.209.L.76; D.213.L.11
428. Stepanov S.Aukaz.op.- P.21-23
429. Monarchists//Ural Historical Encyclopedia. Ekaterinburg: Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Publishing House "Ekaterinburg", 1998. - P.338
430. GASO.F. 11.Op.5.D.3397.L. 1 -13; D2788.L.43-46
432. GASO.F. 183.Op.1.D.39.L. 18
433. See: Lebedeva Kaplan V. Jews of Petrograd in 1917 // Bulletin of the European University in Moscow. -1993.-No.2.-S. 12-13
435. Israel: people in the diaspora // KEE.-T, 3.-P.317
436. TsOOSO.F.41 .Op.2.D. 188.L.62-63
437. Kozlov V.I. Anti-Semitism // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. P.81
438. See: Belov S.L. Anti-Semitism in the Tyumen region in the 1920s // Second Tatishchev Readings. Abstracts of reports and messages. Ekaterinburg, April 28-29, 1999 - Ekaterinburg: IIIIA Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; UrSU, 1999. pp. 188-194
439. GASO.F.233-r.Op. 1 D. 1164.L. 170
440. TsDOOSO.F.61.Op. 1.D.651.L.4
441. RCKHIDNI.F.445.0p.1 -D.31.L.92
442. TsDOOSO.F.61.Op.1.D.301a.L.98
443. Ibid.F.4.0p.10.D.695.L.70
444. Ibid.F.61.Op. 1.D.651.L.73
445. See for example: Catastrophe//KEE.-T.4.-P.159-170; Romanovsky D. The Holocaust in Eastern Belarus and North-Western Russia through the eyes of non-Jews // Vestn. Heb. unta in Moscow. 1995. - No. 2. - P.79-85
446. See: GASO.F.2508-r.Op. 1.D.21.L.54,133; D.69.L.102
447. GASO.F.2508-r.Op. 1.D.20.L.61; D21.L.1, 54 rev.; TsD00S0.F.4.0p.37. D228.L.130; Op.36.D.277.L. 105239
448. Paletskikh N.P. Social policy of the Soviet state in the Urals during the Great Patriotic War: Diss. . doc. ist. nauk.-Chelyabinsk, 1996. P.323; TsTs00S0.F.4.0p.37.D. 158.L.2
449. See for example: Rogovin V. LD Trotsky on anti-Semitism // Bulletin of the Hebrew University in Moscow. -1993. No. 2.-P.90-102
450. Members of MAJews // Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia.-P.157
451. See: Cosmopolitans // KEE. T.4. - P.525-527
452. Members M.A. Jews // Peoples of Russia: Encyclopedia.-S. 157; Malyar I. Anti-Semitism through centuries and countries. Jerusalem, 1995. - P.75
453. GAS0.F.1813-r.0p.11.D.26.L.2-26 vol.
454. N. S. Khrushchev: “We overthrew the Tsar, and you were afraid of Abramovich.” Recording of a conversation between N. S. Khrushchev and the delegation of the Progressive Workers' Party of Canada // Source. 1994. -№3. - pp. 99-100
455. Laqueur U. Black Hundred. The origin of Russian fascism / Trans. from English - M.: Text, 1994,-P. 165
456. See: “How to let the Jewish question out of your pocket” // Source. 1996. - No. 1. -WITH. 154159
457. Razinsky G.V. Decree op.-P.40
458. Ryvkina R.V. Jews in modern Russia // Social sciences and modernity. -1996,- No. 5.-P.56-57
459. Berzin B.Yu., Gushchina A.E. Decree. op. P.71
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488. Op.1. D.2, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15
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502. F. 122 Ural mining battalion
503. Op.1. D. 12, 14, 17, 20, 23, 25, 27, 29, 33, 36, 38, 40, 42,44, 48
504. F.180 Prosecutor of the Yekaterinburg District Court Op.1. D. 208,211, 212,209,213
505. F. 183 Verkhoturye district police officer Op.1. D.39
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510. F.286-r Sverdlovsk Executive Committee of the City Council of People's Deputies (City Executive Committee) Op. 1. D. 884, 2071
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519. Op.21. D. 1086, 2487, 34331. Op.22. D.973, 3526
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522. F. 11 Stalin District Committee of the CPSU, Sverdlovsk Op.1. D. 325 Op.Z. D. 11 Op.8. D.3359, 22036 Op.9. D. 177, 6033 Op.11. D.58 Op. 13. D.997
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526. F.88 Serov City Committee of the CPSU Op.1. D.176, 217
527. F.147 Lenin (1) district control commission of the All-Union Communist Party (b), Sverdlovsk Op.2. D.536
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