In this article you will find information about the proton, as an elementary particle that forms the basis of the universe along with its other elements, used in chemistry and physics. The properties of the proton, its characteristics in chemistry and stability will be determined.
What is a proton
A proton is one of the representatives of elementary particles, which is classified as a baryon, e.g. in which fermions interact strongly, and the particle itself consists of 3 quarks. The proton is a stable particle and has a personal momentum - spin ½. The physical designation for proton is p(or p +)
A proton is an elementary particle that takes part in thermonuclear-type processes. It is this type of reaction that is essentially the main source of energy generated by stars throughout the universe. Almost the entire amount of energy released by the Sun exists only due to the combination of 4 protons into one helium nucleus with the formation of one neutron from two protons.
Properties inherent in a proton
A proton is one of the representatives of baryons. It is a fact. The charge and mass of a proton are constant quantities. The proton is electrically charged +1, and its mass is determined in various units of measurement and is in MeV 938.272 0813(58), in kilograms of a proton the weight is in the figures 1.672 621 898(21) 10 −27 kg, in units of atomic masses the weight of a proton is 1.007 276 466 879(91) a. e.m., and in relation to the mass of the electron, the proton weighs 1836.152 673 89 (17) in relation to the electron.
A proton, the definition of which has already been given above, from the point of view of physics, is an elementary particle with a projection of isospin +½, and nuclear physics perceives this particle with the opposite sign. The proton itself is a nucleon, and consists of 3 quarks (two u quarks and one d quark).
The structure of the proton was experimentally studied by nuclear physicist from the United States of America - Robert Hofstadter. To achieve this goal, the physicist collided protons with high-energy electrons, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his description.
The proton contains a core (heavy core), which contains about thirty-five percent of the energy of the proton's electric charge and has a fairly high density. The shell surrounding the core is relatively discharged. The shell consists mainly of virtual mesons of type and p and carries about fifty percent of the electric potential of the proton and is located at a distance of approximately 0.25 * 10 13 to 1.4 * 10 13 . Even further, at a distance of about 2.5 * 10 13 centimeters, the shell consists of and w virtual mesons and contains approximately the remaining fifteen percent of the proton's electric charge.
Proton Stability and Stability
In the free state, the proton does not show any signs of decay, which indicates its stability. The stable state of the proton, as the lightest representative of baryons, is determined by the law of conservation of the number of baryons. Without violating the SBC law, protons are capable of decaying into neutrinos, positrons and other, lighter elementary particles.
The proton of the nucleus of atoms has the ability to capture certain types of electrons having K, L, M atomic shells. A proton, having completed electron capture, transforms into a neutron and as a result releases a neutrino, and the “hole” formed as a result of electron capture is filled with electrons from above the underlying atomic layers.
In non-inertial reference frames, protons must acquire a limited lifetime that can be calculated; this is due to the Unruh effect (radiation), which in quantum field theory predicts the possible contemplation of thermal radiation in a reference frame that is accelerated in the absence of this type of radiation. Thus, a proton, if it has a finite lifetime, can undergo beta decay into a positron, neutron or neutrino, despite the fact that the process of such decay itself is prohibited by the ZSE.
Use of protons in chemistry
A proton is an H atom built from a single proton and does not have an electron, so in a chemical sense, a proton is one nucleus of an H atom. A neutron paired with a proton creates the nucleus of an atom. In Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev's PTCE, the element number indicates the number of protons in the atom of a particular element, and the element number is determined by the atomic charge.
Hydrogen cations are very strong electron acceptors. In chemistry, protons are obtained mainly from organic and mineral acids. Ionization is a method of producing protons in gas phases.
, electromagnetic and gravitational
Protons take part in thermonuclear reactions, which are the main source of energy generated by stars. In particular, reactions pp-cycle, which is the source of almost all the energy emitted by the Sun, comes down to the combination of four protons into a helium-4 nucleus with the transformation of two protons into neutrons.
In physics, proton is denoted p(or p+ ). The chemical designation of the proton (considered as a positive hydrogen ion) is H +, the astrophysical designation is HII.
Opening
Proton properties
The ratio of the proton and electron masses, equal to 1836.152 673 89(17), with an accuracy of 0.002% is equal to the value 6π 5 = 1836.118…
The internal structure of the proton was first experimentally studied by R. Hofstadter by studying collisions of a beam of high-energy electrons (2 GeV) with protons (Nobel Prize in Physics 1961). The proton consists of a heavy core (core) with a radius of cm, with a high density of mass and charge, carrying ≈ 35% (\displaystyle \approx 35\,\%) electric charge of the proton and the relatively rarefied shell surrounding it. At a distance from ≈ 0 , 25 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 0(,)25\cdot 10^(-13)) before ≈ 1 , 4 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 1(,)4\cdot 10^(-13)) cm this shell consists mainly of virtual ρ - and π -mesons carrying ≈ 50% (\displaystyle \approx 50\,\%) electric charge of the proton, then to the distance ≈ 2 , 5 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 2(,)5\cdot 10^(-13)) cm extends a shell of virtual ω - and π -mesons, carrying ~15% of the electric charge of the proton.
The pressure at the center of the proton created by quarks is about 10 35 Pa (10 30 atmospheres), that is, higher than the pressure inside neutron stars.
The magnetic moment of a proton is measured by measuring the ratio of the resonant frequency of precession of the proton's magnetic moment in a given uniform magnetic field and the cyclotron frequency of the proton's circular orbit in the same field.
There are three physical quantities associated with a proton that have the dimension of length:
Measurements of the proton radius using ordinary hydrogen atoms, carried out by various methods since the 1960s, led (CODATA -2014) to the result 0.8751 ± 0.0061 femtometer(1 fm = 10 −15 m). The first experiments with muonic hydrogen atoms (where the electron is replaced by a muon) gave a 4% smaller result for this radius: 0.84184 ± 0.00067 fm. The reasons for this difference are still unclear.
The so-called weak charge of the proton Q w ≈ 1 − 4 sin 2 θ W, which determines its participation in weak interactions through exchange Z 0 boson (similar to how the electric charge of a particle determines its participation in electromagnetic interactions by exchanging a photon) is 0.0719 ± 0.0045, according to experimental measurements of parity violation during the scattering of polarized electrons on protons. The measured value is consistent, within experimental error, with the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model (0.0708 ± 0.0003).
Stability
The free proton is stable, experimental studies have not revealed any signs of its decay (lower limit on the lifetime is 2.9⋅10 29 years regardless of the decay channel, 8.2⋅10 33 years for decay into a positron and neutral pion, 6.6⋅ 10 33 years for decay into a positive muon and a neutral pion). Since the proton is the lightest of the baryons, the stability of the proton is a consequence of the law of conservation of baryon number - a proton cannot decay into any lighter particles (for example, into a positron and neutrino) without violating this law. However, many theoretical extensions of the Standard Model predict processes (not yet observed) that would result in baryon number nonconservation and hence proton decay.
A proton bound in an atomic nucleus is capable of capturing an electron from the electron K-, L- or M-shell of the atom (so-called “electron capture”). A proton of the atomic nucleus, having absorbed an electron, turns into a neutron and simultaneously emits a neutrino: p+e − →+ν e
. A “hole” in the K-, L-, or M-layer formed by electron capture is filled with an electron from one of the overlying electron layers of the atom, emitting characteristic X-rays corresponding to the atomic number Z− 1, and/or Auger electrons. Over 1000 isotopes from 7 are known
4 to 262
105, decaying by electron capture. At sufficiently high available decay energies (above 2m e c 2 ≈ 1.022 MeV) a competing decay channel opens - positron decay p → +e ++ν e
. It should be emphasized that these processes are possible only for a proton in some nuclei, where the missing energy is replenished by the transition of the resulting neutron to a lower nuclear shell; for a free proton they are prohibited by the law of conservation of energy.
The source of protons in chemistry are mineral (nitric, sulfuric, phosphoric and others) and organic (formic, acetic, oxalic and others) acids. In an aqueous solution, acids are capable of dissociation with the elimination of a proton, forming a hydronium cation.
In the gas phase, protons are obtained by ionization - the removal of an electron from a hydrogen atom. The ionization potential of an unexcited hydrogen atom is 13.595 eV. When molecular hydrogen is ionized by fast electrons at atmospheric pressure and room temperature, the molecular hydrogen ion (H 2 +) is initially formed - a physical system consisting of two protons held together at a distance of 1.06 by one electron. The stability of such a system, according to Pauling, is caused by the resonance of an electron between two protons with a “resonance frequency” equal to 7·10 14 s −1. When the temperature rises to several thousand degrees, the composition of hydrogen ionization products changes in favor of protons - H +.
Application
see also
Notes
- http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt Fundamental Physical Constants --- Complete Listing
- CODATA Value: proton mass
- CODATA Value: proton mass in u
- Ahmed S.; et al. (2004). “Constraints on Nucleon Decay via Invisible Modes from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory.” Physical Review Letters. 92 (10): 102004. arXiv: hep-ex/0310030. Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92j2004A. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.102004. PMID.
- CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV
- CODATA Value: proton-electron mass ratio
- , With. 67.
- Hofstadter P. Structure of nuclei and nucleons // Phys. - 1963. - T. 81, No. 1. - P. 185-200. - ISSN. - URL: http://ufn.ru/ru/articles/1963/9/e/
- Shchelkin K. I. Virtual processes and the structure of the nucleon // Physics of the Microworld - M.: Atomizdat, 1965. - P. 75.
- Zhdanov G. B. Elastic scattering, peripheral interactions and resonances // High Energy Particles. High energies in space and laboratories - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 132.
- Burkert V. D., Elouadrhiri L., Girod F. X. The pressure distribution inside the proton // Nature. - 2018. - May (vol. 557, no. 7705). - P. 396-399. - DOI:10.1038/s41586-018-0060-z.
- Bethe, G., Morrison F. Elementary theory of the nucleus. - M: IL, 1956. - P. 48.
Protons take part in thermonuclear reactions, which are the main source of energy generated by stars. In particular, reactions pp-cycle, which is the source of almost all the energy emitted by the Sun, comes down to the combination of four protons into a helium-4 nucleus with the transformation of two protons into neutrons.
In physics, proton is denoted p(or p+ ). The chemical designation of the proton (considered as a positive hydrogen ion) is H +, the astrophysical designation is HII.
Opening [ | ]
Proton properties[ | ]
The ratio of the proton and electron masses, equal to 1836.152 673 89(17), with an accuracy of 0.002% is equal to the value 6π 5 = 1836.118…
The internal structure of the proton was first experimentally studied by R. Hofstadter by studying collisions of a beam of high-energy electrons (2 GeV) with protons (Nobel Prize in Physics 1961). The proton consists of a heavy core (core) with a radius of cm, with a high density of mass and charge, carrying ≈ 35% (\displaystyle \approx 35\%) electric charge of the proton and the relatively rarefied shell surrounding it. At a distance from ≈ 0, 25 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 0.25\cdot 10^(-13)) before ≈ 1 , 4 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 1.4\cdot 10^(-13)) cm this shell consists mainly of virtual ρ - and π -mesons carrying ≈ 50% (\displaystyle \approx 50\%) electric charge of the proton, then to the distance ≈ 2, 5 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 2.5\cdot 10^(-13)) cm extends a shell of virtual ω - and π -mesons, carrying ~15% of the electric charge of the proton.
The pressure at the center of the proton created by quarks is about 10 35 Pa (10 30 atmospheres), that is, higher than the pressure inside neutron stars.
The magnetic moment of a proton is measured by measuring the ratio of the resonant frequency of precession of the proton's magnetic moment in a given uniform magnetic field and the cyclotron frequency of the proton's circular orbit in the same field.
There are three physical quantities associated with a proton that have the dimension of length:
Measurements of the proton radius using ordinary hydrogen atoms, carried out by various methods since the 1960s, led (CODATA -2014) to the result 0.8751 ± 0.0061 femtometer(1 fm = 10 −15 m). The first experiments with muonic hydrogen atoms (where the electron is replaced by a muon) gave a 4% smaller result for this radius: 0.84184 ± 0.00067 fm. The reasons for this difference are still unclear.
The so-called proton Q w ≈ 1 − 4 sin 2 θ W, which determines its participation in weak interactions through exchange Z 0 boson (similar to how the electric charge of a particle determines its participation in electromagnetic interactions by exchanging a photon) is 0.0719 ± 0.0045, according to experimental measurements of parity violation during the scattering of polarized electrons on protons. The measured value is consistent, within experimental error, with the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model (0.0708 ± 0.0003).
Stability [ | ]
The free proton is stable, experimental studies have not revealed any signs of its decay (lower limit on the lifetime is 2.9⋅10 29 years regardless of the decay channel, 8.2⋅10 33 years for decay into a positron and neutral pion, 6.6⋅ 10 33 years for decay into a positive muon and a neutral pion). Since the proton is the lightest of the baryons, the stability of the proton is a consequence of the law of conservation of baryon number - a proton cannot decay into any lighter particles (for example, into a positron and neutrino) without violating this law. However, many theoretical extensions of the Standard Model predict processes (not yet observed) that would result in baryon number nonconservation and hence proton decay.
A proton bound in an atomic nucleus is capable of capturing an electron from the electron K-, L- or M-shell of the atom (so-called “electron capture”). A proton of the atomic nucleus, having absorbed an electron, turns into a neutron and simultaneously emits a neutrino: p+e − →+ν e
. A “hole” in the K-, L-, or M-layer formed by electron capture is filled with an electron from one of the overlying electron layers of the atom, emitting characteristic X-rays corresponding to the atomic number Z− 1, and/or Auger electrons. Over 1000 isotopes from 7 are known
4 to 262
105, decaying by electron capture. At sufficiently high available decay energies (above 2m e c 2 ≈ 1.022 MeV) a competing decay channel opens - positron decay p → +e ++ν e
. It should be emphasized that these processes are possible only for a proton in some nuclei, where the missing energy is replenished by the transition of the resulting neutron to a lower nuclear shell; for a free proton they are prohibited by the law of conservation of energy.
The source of protons in chemistry are mineral (nitric, sulfuric, phosphoric and others) and organic (formic, acetic, oxalic and others) acids. In an aqueous solution, acids are capable of dissociation with the elimination of a proton, forming a hydronium cation.
In the gas phase, protons are obtained by ionization - the removal of an electron from a hydrogen atom. The ionization potential of an unexcited hydrogen atom is 13.595 eV. When molecular hydrogen is ionized by fast electrons at atmospheric pressure and room temperature, the molecular hydrogen ion (H 2 +) is initially formed - a physical system consisting of two protons held together at a distance of 1.06 by one electron. The stability of such a system, according to Pauling, is caused by the resonance of an electron between two protons with a “resonance frequency” equal to 7·10 14 s −1. When the temperature rises to several thousand degrees, the composition of hydrogen ionization products changes in favor of protons - H +.
Application [ | ]
Beams of accelerated protons are used in experimental physics of elementary particles (study of scattering processes and production of beams of other particles), in medicine (proton therapy for cancer).
see also [ | ]
Notes [ | ]
- http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt Fundamental Physical Constants --- Complete Listing
- CODATA Value: proton mass
- CODATA Value: proton mass in u
- Ahmed S.; et al. (2004). “Constraints on Nucleon Decay via Invisible Modes from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory.” Physical Review Letters. 92 (10): 102004. arXiv: hep-ex/0310030. Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92j2004A. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.102004. PMID.
- CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV
- CODATA Value: proton-electron mass ratio
- , With. 67.
- Hofstadter P. Structure of nuclei and nucleons // Phys. - 1963. - T. 81, No. 1. - P. 185-200. - ISSN. - URL: http://ufn.ru/ru/articles/1963/9/e/
- Shchelkin K. I. Virtual processes and the structure of the nucleon // Physics of the Microworld - M.: Atomizdat, 1965. - P. 75.
- Elastic scattering, peripheral interactions and resonances // High Energy Particles. High energies in space and laboratories - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 132.
It was once believed that the smallest unit of structure of any substance is a molecule. Then, with the invention of more powerful microscopes, humanity was surprised to discover the concept of an atom - a composite particle of molecules. It would seem much less? Meanwhile, it turned out even later that the atom, in turn, consists of smaller elements.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a British physicist discovered the presence of nuclei in the atom - central structures; it was this moment that marked the beginning of a series of endless discoveries concerning the structure of the smallest structural element of matter.
Today, based on the nuclear model and thanks to numerous studies, it is known that the atom consists of a nucleus that is surrounded by electron cloud. Such a “cloud” contains electrons, or elementary particles with a negative charge. The nucleus, on the contrary, includes particles with an electrically positive charge, called protons. The British physicist already mentioned above was able to observe and subsequently describe this phenomenon. In 1919, he conducted an experiment in which alpha particles knocked hydrogen nuclei out of the nuclei of other elements. Thus, he was able to find out and prove that protons are nothing more than a nucleus without a single electron. In modern physics, protons are symbolized by the symbol p or p+ (denoting a positive charge).
Proton translated from Greek means “first, main” - an elementary particle belonging to the class baryons, those. relatively heavy It is a stable structure, its lifespan is more than 2.9 x 10(29) years.
Strictly speaking, in addition to the proton, it also contains neutrons, which, based on the name, are neutrally charged. Both of these elements are called nucleons.
The mass of the proton, due to quite obvious circumstances, could not be measured for a long time. Now it is known that it is
mp=1.67262∙10-27 kg.
This is exactly what the rest mass of a proton looks like.
Let us move on to consider understandings of the proton mass that are specific to different areas of physics.
The mass of a particle within the framework of nuclear physics often takes a different form; its unit of measurement is amu.
A.e.m. - atomic mass unit. One amu equals 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom, the mass number of which is 12. Hence, 1 atomic mass unit is equal to 1.66057 10-27 kg.
The mass of a proton therefore looks like this:
mp = 1.007276 a. eat.
There is another way to express the mass of this positively charged particle, using different units of measurement. To do this, you first need to accept as an axiom the equivalence of mass and energy E=mc2. Where c - and m is body mass.
The proton mass in this case will be measured in megaelectronvolts or MeV. This unit of measurement is used exclusively in nuclear and atomic physics and serves to measure the energy that is necessary to transfer a particle between two points in C with the condition that the potential difference between these points is 1 Volt.
Hence, taking into account that 1 a.u.m. = 931.494829533852 MeV, proton mass is approximately
This conclusion was obtained on the basis of mass spectroscopic measurements, and it is the mass in the form in which it is given above that is also commonly called e proton rest energy.
Thus, based on the needs of the experiment, the mass of the smallest particle can be expressed in three different values, in three different units of measurement.
In addition, the mass of a proton can be expressed relative to the mass of an electron, which, as is known, is much “heavier” than a positively charged particle. The mass, with a rough calculation and significant errors in this case, will be 1836.152672 relative to the mass of the electron.
This article was written by Vladimir Gorunovich for the Wikiknowledge website even before a similar article on the Wikiknowledge website was edited, distorting reality. Now I can freely write the truth only on my sites, and also on those sites that allow this.
- 2 Proton in physics
- 2.1 Proton radius
- 2.2 Magnetic moment of the proton
- 2.4 Proton rest mass
- 2.5 Proton lifetime
- 3 Proton in the Standard Model
- 4 A proton is an elementary particle
- 6 Proton - summary
1 Proton (elementary particle)
Proton- elementary particle quantum number L=3/2 (spin = 1/2) - baryon group, proton subgroup, electric charge +e (systematization according to the field theory of elementary particles).
Proton subgroup (ground and excited states)
2 Proton in physics
Proton - elementary particle quantum number L=3/2 (spin = 1/2) - group of baryons, proton subgroup, electric charge +e (systematization according to the field theory of elementary particles).
According to the field theory of elementary particles (a theory built on a scientific foundation and the only one that received the correct spectrum of all elementary particles), a proton consists of a rotating polarized alternating electromagnetic field with a constant component. All the unfounded statements of the Standard Model that the proton supposedly consists of quarks have nothing to do with reality. - Physics has experimentally proven that the proton has electromagnetic fields, and also a gravitational field. Physics brilliantly guessed that elementary particles not only have, but consist of, electromagnetic fields 100 years ago, but it was not possible to construct a theory until 2010. Now, in 2015, a theory of gravity of elementary particles also appeared, which established the electromagnetic nature of gravity and obtained the equations of the gravitational field of elementary particles, different from the equations of gravity, on the basis of which more than one mathematical fairy tale in physics was built.
The structure of the electromagnetic field of a proton (E-constant electric field, H-constant magnetic field, alternating electromagnetic field is marked in yellow)
Energy balance (percentage of total internal energy):
- constant electric field (E) - 0.346%,
- constant magnetic field (H) - 7.44%,
- alternating electromagnetic field - 92.21%.
The ratio between the energy concentrated in a constant magnetic field of a proton and the energy concentrated in a constant electric field is 21.48. This explains the presence of nuclear forces in the proton. The structure of a proton is shown in the figure.
The electric field of a proton consists of two regions: an outer region with a positive charge and an inner region with a negative charge. The difference in the charges of the outer and inner regions determines the total electric charge of the proton +e. Its quantization is based on the geometry and structure of elementary particles.
And this is what the fundamental interactions of elementary particles that actually exist in nature look like:
2.1 Proton radius
The field theory of elementary particles defines the radius (r) of a particle as the distance from the center to the point at which the maximum mass density is achieved.
For a proton it will be 3.4212 10 -16 m. To this it is necessary to add the thickness of the electromagnetic field layer, the result will be:
which is equal to 4.5616 10 -16 m. Thus, the outer boundary of the proton is located at a distance of 4.5616 10 -16 m from the center. But it must be remembered that a small (about 1%) part of the rest mass, contained in the constant electric and constant magnetic fields, in accordance with classical electrodynamics, is outside this radius.
2.2 Magnetic moment of the proton
In contrast to quantum theory, the field theory of elementary particles states that the magnetic fields of elementary particles are not created by the spin rotation of electric charges, but exist simultaneously with a constant electric field as a constant component of the electromagnetic field. Therefore, all elementary particles with quantum number L>0 have magnetic fields.
The field theory of elementary particles does not consider the magnetic moment of the proton to be anomalous - its value is determined by a set of quantum numbers to the extent that quantum mechanics works in an elementary particle.
So the main magnetic moment of a proton is created by two currents:
- (+) with magnetic moment +2 eħ/m 0p c
- (-) with magnetic moment -0.5 eħ/m 0p s
To obtain the resulting magnetic moment of a proton, we must add both moments, multiply by the percentage of energy of the alternating electromagnetic field, divided by 100 percent, and add the spin component, resulting in 1.3964237 eh/m 0p c. In order to convert into ordinary nuclear magnetons, the resulting number must be multiplied by two - in the end we have 2.7928474.
2.3 Electric field of a proton
2.3.1 Proton far-field electric field
Physics' knowledge of the structure of the proton's electric field has changed as physics has developed. It was initially believed that the electric field of a proton is the field of a point electric charge +e. For this field there will be:
the electric field potential of a proton at point (A) in the far zone (r >> r p) is exactly equal in the SI system:
the electric field strength E of a proton in the far zone (r >> r p) is exactly equal in the SI system:
Where n = r/|r| - unit vector from the proton center in the direction of the observation point (A), r - distance from the proton center to the observation point, e - elementary electric charge, vectors are in bold, ε 0 - electric constant, r p = Lh/(m 0~ c ) is the radius of a proton in field theory, L is the main quantum number of a proton in field theory, h is Planck’s constant, m 0~ is the amount of mass contained in an alternating electromagnetic field of a proton at rest, c is the speed of light. (There is no multiplier in the GHS system. SI Multiplier.)
These mathematical expressions are correct for the far zone of the proton’s electric field: r >> r p , but physics then assumed that their validity also extended to the near zone, up to distances of the order of 10 -14 cm.
2.3.2 Electric charges of a proton
In the first half of the 20th century, physics believed that a proton had only one electric charge and it was equal to +e.
After the emergence of the quark hypothesis, physics suggested that inside a proton there are not one, but three electric charges: two electric charges +2e/3 and one electric charge -e/3. In total, these charges give +e. This was done because physics suggested that the proton has a complex structure and consists of two up quarks with a charge of +2e/3 and one d quark with a charge of -e/3. But quarks were not found either in nature or in accelerators at any energies, and it remained either to take their existence on faith (which is what the supporters of the Standard Model did) or to look for another structure of elementary particles. But at the same time, experimental information about elementary particles was constantly accumulating in physics, and when it accumulated enough to rethink what had been done, the field theory of elementary particles was born.
According to the field theory of elementary particles, a constant electric field of elementary particles with a quantum number L>0, both charged and neutral, is created by a constant component of the electromagnetic field of the corresponding elementary particle (it is not the electric charge that is the root cause of the electric field, as physics believed in the 19th century, but the electric fields of elementary particles are such that they correspond to the fields of electric charges). And the field of electric charge arises as a result of the presence of asymmetry between the outer and inner hemispheres, generating electric fields of opposite signs. For charged elementary particles, a field of an elementary electric charge is generated in the far zone, and the sign of the electric charge is determined by the sign of the electric field generated by the outer hemisphere. In the near zone, this field has a complex structure and is a dipole, but it does not have a dipole moment. For an approximate description of this field as a system of point charges, at least 6 “quarks” inside the proton will be required - it would be better if we take 8 “quarks”. It is clear that the electric charges of such “quarks” will be completely different from what the standard model (with its quarks) considers.
The field theory of elementary particles has established that the proton, like any other positively charged elementary particle, can have two electric charges and, accordingly, two electric radii:
- electric radius of the external constant electric field (charge q + =+1.25e) - r q+ = 4.39 10 -14 cm,
- electric radius of the internal constant electric field (charge q - = -0.25e) - r q- = 2.45 10 -14 cm.
These characteristics of the proton electric field correspond to the distribution of the 1st field theory of elementary particles. Physics has not yet experimentally established the accuracy of this distribution, and which distribution most accurately corresponds to the real structure of the constant electric field of a proton in the near zone, as well as the structure of the electric field of a proton in the near zone (at distances of the order of rp). As you can see, the electric charges are close in magnitude to the charges of the supposed quarks (+4/3e=+1.333e and -1/3e=-0.333e) in the proton, but unlike quarks, electromagnetic fields exist in nature, and have a similar structure of constant Any positively charged elementary particle has an electric field, regardless of the magnitude of the spin and... .
The values of the electric radii for each elementary particle are unique and are determined by the principal quantum number in the field theory L, the value of the rest mass, the percentage of energy contained in the alternating electromagnetic field (where quantum mechanics works) and the structure of the constant component of the electromagnetic field of the elementary particle (the same for all elementary particles with given by the principal quantum number L), generating an external constant electric field. The electric radius indicates the average location of an electric charge uniformly distributed around the circumference, creating a similar electric field. Both electric charges lie in the same plane (the plane of rotation of the alternating electromagnetic field of the elementary particle) and have a common center that coincides with the center of rotation of the alternating electromagnetic field of the elementary particle.
2.3.3 Electric field of a proton in the near zone
Knowing the magnitude of the electric charges inside an elementary particle and their location, it is possible to determine the electric field created by them.
The electric field strength E of a proton in the near zone (r~r p), in the SI system, as a vector sum, is approximately equal to:
Where n+ = r +/|r+ | - unit vector from the near (1) or far (2) point of proton charge q + in the direction of the observation point (A), n- = r-/|r- | - unit vector from the near (1) or far (2) point of the proton charge q - in the direction of the observation point (A), r - the distance from the center of the proton to the projection of the observation point onto the proton plane, q + - external electric charge +1.25e, q - - internal electric charge -0.25e, vectors are highlighted in bold, ε 0 - electrical constant, z - height of the observation point (A) (distance from the observation point to the proton plane), r 0 - normalization parameter. (There is no multiplier in the GHS system. SI Multiplier.)
This mathematical expression is a sum of vectors and must be calculated according to the rules of vector addition, since this is a field of two distributed electric charges (+1.25e and -0.25e). The first and third terms correspond to the near points of the charges, the second and fourth - to the far ones. This mathematical expression does not work in the internal (ring) region of the proton, generating its constant fields (if two conditions are simultaneously met: h/m 0~ c The electric field potential of a proton at point (A) in the near zone (r~r p), in the SI system is approximately equal to: where r 0 is a normalizing parameter, the value of which may differ from r 0 in formula E. (There is no factor in the SGS system.) This mathematical expression does not work in the internal (ring) region of the proton, generating its constant fields (if two conditions are met simultaneously: h/m 0~ c Calibration of r 0 for both near-field expressions must be performed at the boundary of the region generating constant proton fields.
2.4 Proton rest mass
In accordance with classical electrodynamics and Einstein’s formula, the rest mass of elementary particles with quantum number L>0, including the proton, is defined as the equivalent of the energy of their electromagnetic fields:
where the definite integral is taken over the entire electromagnetic field of an elementary particle, E is the electric field strength, H is the magnetic field strength. All components of the electromagnetic field are taken into account here: constant electric field, constant magnetic field, alternating electromagnetic field. This small, but very physics-capacious formula, on the basis of which the equations for the gravitational field of elementary particles are derived, will send more than one fairy-tale “theory” to the scrap heap - that’s why some of their authors will hate it.
As follows from the above formula, the value of the rest mass of a proton depends on the conditions in which the proton is located. Thus, by placing a proton in a constant external electric field (for example, an atomic nucleus), we will affect E 2, which will affect the mass of the proton and its stability. A similar situation will arise when a proton is placed in a constant magnetic field. Therefore, some properties of a proton inside an atomic nucleus differ from the same properties of a free proton in a vacuum, far from fields.
2.5 Proton lifetime
The lifetime indicated in the table corresponds to a free proton.
The field theory of elementary particles states that the lifetime of an elementary particle depends on the conditions in which it is located. By placing a proton in an external field (such as an electric one), we change the energy contained in its electromagnetic field. You can choose the sign of the external field so that the internal energy of the proton increases. It is possible to select such a value of the external field strength that it becomes possible for the proton to decay into a neutron, positron, and electron neutrino, and therefore the proton becomes unstable. This is exactly what is observed in atomic nuclei, in which the electric field of neighboring protons triggers the decay of the proton of the nucleus. When additional energy is introduced into the nucleus, proton decays can begin at a lower external field strength.
3 Proton in the Standard Model
It is stated that the proton is a bound state of three quarks: two “up” (u) and one “down” (d) quarks (proposed quark structure of the proton: uud), and the neutron has (quark structure udd). The closeness of the masses of the proton and neutron is explained by the closeness of the masses of the hypothetical quarks (u and d).
Since the presence of quarks in nature has not been experimentally proven, and there is only indirect evidence that can be interpreted as the presence of traces of quarks in some interactions of elementary particles, but can also be interpreted differently, the statement of the Standard Model that the proton has a quark structure remains just an unproven assumption.
Any model, including the Standard one, has the right to assume any structure of elementary particles, including the proton, but until the corresponding particles of which the proton supposedly consists are discovered at accelerators, the statement of the model should be considered unproven.
In 1964, Gellmann and Zweig independently proposed a hypothesis for the existence of quarks, from which, in their opinion, hadrons are composed. The new particles were endowed with a fractional electric charge that does not exist in nature.
Leptons did NOT fit into this Quark model, which later grew into the Standard Model, and therefore were recognized as truly elementary particles.
To explain the connection of quarks in the hadron, the existence in nature of strong interaction and its carriers, gluons, was assumed. Gluons, as expected in Quantum Theory, were endowed with unit spin, the identity of particle and antiparticle, and zero rest mass, like a photon.
In reality, in nature there is not a strong interaction of hypothetical quarks, but nuclear forces of nucleons - and this is not the same thing.
50 years have passed. Quarks were never found in nature and a new mathematical fairy tale was invented for us called “Confinement”. A thinking person can easily see in it a blatant disregard for the fundamental law of nature - the law of conservation of energy. But this will be done by a thinking person, and the storytellers received an excuse that suited them as to why there are no free quarks in nature.
Gluons have also NOT been found in nature. The fact is that only vector mesons (and one more of the excited states of mesons) can have unit spin in nature, but each vector meson has an antiparticle. - Therefore, vector mesons are not suitable candidates for “gluons”. There remain the first nine excited states of mesons, but 2 of them contradict the Standard Model itself and the Standard Model does not recognize their existence in nature, and the rest have been well studied by physics, and it will not be possible to pass them off as fabulous gluons. There is one last option: passing off a bound state of a pair of leptons (muons or tau leptons) as a gluon - but even this can be calculated during decay.
So, there are no gluons in nature, just as there are no quarks and the fictitious strong interaction in nature.
You think that supporters of the Standard Model do not understand this - they still do, but it’s just sickening to admit the fallacy of what they have been doing for decades. And that’s why we see new mathematical fairy tales....
4 A proton is an elementary particle
Physics' ideas about the structure of the proton changed as physics developed.
Physics initially considered the proton to be an elementary particle until 1964, when GellMann and Zweig independently proposed the quark hypothesis.
Initially, the quark model of hadrons was limited to only three hypothetical quarks and their antiparticles. This made it possible to correctly describe the spectrum of elementary particles known at that time, without taking into account leptons, which did not fit into the proposed model and therefore were recognized as elementary, along with quarks. The price for this was the introduction of fractional electric charges that do not exist in nature. Then, as physics developed and new experimental data became available, the quark model gradually grew and transformed, eventually becoming the Standard Model.
Physicists have been diligently searching for new hypothetical particles. The search for quarks was carried out in cosmic rays, in nature (since their fractional electric charge cannot be compensated) and at accelerators.
Decades passed, the power of accelerators grew, and the result of the search for hypothetical quarks was always the same: quarks were NOT found in nature.
Seeing the prospect of the death of the quark (and then the Standard) model, its supporters composed and palmed off to humanity a fairy tale that traces of quarks were observed in some experiments. - It is impossible to verify this information - experimental data is processed using the Standard Model, and it will always give out something as what it needs. The history of physics knows examples when, instead of one particle, another was slipped in - the last such manipulation of experimental data was the slipping of a vector meson as a fabulous Higgs boson, supposedly responsible for the mass of particles, but at the same time not creating their gravitational field. For this deception they even gave the Nobel Prize in Physics. In our case, standing waves of an alternating electromagnetic field, about which the wave theories of elementary particles were written, were slipped in as fairy quarks, and physics of the 21st century (represented by the Theory of Gravity of Elementary Particles) established a natural mechanism of inertial properties of elementary particles of the matter of the Universe, not associated with the mathematical fairy tale about Higgs boson.
When the throne under the standard model began to shake again, its supporters composed and slipped humanity a new fairy tale for the little ones, called “Confinement.” Any thinking person will immediately see in it a mockery of the law of conservation of energy - a fundamental law of nature. But supporters of the Standard Model do not want to see the TRUTH.
5 When physics remained a science
When physics still remained a science, the truth was determined not by the opinion of the majority - but by experiment. This is the fundamental difference between PHYSICS-SCIENCE and mathematical fairy tales passed off as physics.
All experiments to search for hypothetical quarks (except, of course, for na-du-va-tel-stvo) have clearly shown: there are NO quarks in nature.
All the unfounded statements of the Standard Model that the proton supposedly consists of quarks have nothing to do with reality. - Physics has experimentally proven that the proton has electromagnetic fields, and also a gravitational field. Physics brilliantly guessed that elementary particles not only have, but consist of, electromagnetic fields 100 years ago, but it was not possible to construct a theory until 2010. Now, in 2015, a theory of gravity of elementary particles also appeared, which established the electromagnetic nature of gravity and obtained the equations of the gravitational field of elementary particles, different from the equations of gravity, on the basis of which more than one mathematical fairy tale in physics was built.
6 Proton - summary
In the main part of the article I did not talk in detail about fairy quarks (with fairy gluons), since they are NOT in nature and there is no point in filling your head with fairy tales (unnecessarily) - and without the fundamental elements of the foundation: quarks with gluons, the standard model collapsed - the time of its dominance in physics COMPLETED (see Standard Model).
You can ignore the place of electromagnetism in nature for as long as you like (meeting it at every step: light, thermal radiation, electricity, television, radio, telephone communications, including cellular, the Internet, without which humanity would not have known about the existence of the Field Theory elementary particles, ...), and continue to invent new fairy tales to replace the bankrupt ones, passing them off as science; you can, with persistence worthy of better use, continue to repeat the memorized TALES of the Standard Model and Quantum Theory; but electromagnetic fields in nature were, are, will be and can do just fine without fairy-tale virtual particles, as well as gravity created by electromagnetic fields, but fairy tales have a time of birth and a time when they cease to influence people. As for nature, it DOES NOT care about fairy tales or any other literary activity of man, even if the Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded for them. Nature is structured the way it is structured, and the task of PHYSICS-SCIENCE is to understand and describe it.
Now a new world has opened before you - the world of dipole fields, the existence of which physics of the 20th century did not even suspect. You saw that a proton has not one, but two electric charges (external and internal) and two corresponding electric radii. You saw what the rest mass of a proton consists of and that the imaginary Higgs boson was out of work (the decisions of the Nobel Committee are not laws of nature yet...). Moreover, the magnitude of the mass and lifetime depend on the fields in which the proton is located. Just because a free proton is stable does not mean that it will remain stable always and everywhere (proton decays are observed in atomic nuclei). All this goes beyond the concepts that dominated physics in the second half of the twentieth century. - Physics of the 21st century - New physics is moving to a new level of knowledge of matter, and new interesting discoveries await us.
