Introduction
The history of the emergence of Christianity
Fundamentals of Christianity
Catholicism
Protestantism
Main currents in Protestantism
Orthodoxy
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
I chose the topic of the course work - Christianity. In my opinion, this topic is the most interesting and informative.
Our modern world has forgotten how much the first Christians had to endure, and what a huge history the faith has, which is now available to every person. This topic is very close to me, because. I myself was baptized as a child and go to church. They baptized me in 1989. 17 years have passed, and I still wear the cross of Orthodoxy and I am not going to take it off anywhere. It is very pleasant to wear a cross, knowing and believing that it is a protection from all passions, human evil and murder, persecution and enmity. But now our modern world has begun to think and defend itself with other things. For example: rudeness and lies, hypocrisy, fearlessness, depravity, drug addiction, lack of culture, etc. Now the word "faith" sounds like a mandatory trip to church, fear of priests, fasting, prayer, and sick and exhausted legs after standing at a long liturgy. Therefore, not every person having heard the slogan - "believe!" go to church and be baptized. God brings someone to faith through sickness and loneliness; someone through the despondency and death of loved ones, and someone goes on his own (in childhood, parents taught). In fact, the word "faith" is a word about the salvation of the soul, the human race, about the recognition that there will be eternal life after death and that good conquers evil. Alas, this is all just talk and self-hypnosis. In fact, the word "faith" is something like your home, where you live, where you feel good and comfortable, where you are not tormented by fears and longing does not press, where you will always be supported and understood, where the sun is brighter and the air is warmer . After all, you don’t want to leave such a house for another, where there is fear, pain, violence!
The question arises: "Why then now there are few people striving for goodness and faith?". It's all in relation to it. There are almost no programs on television that would show divine services (only one channel "Blagovest"), good films and cartoons. Young people don't know what life can be like without "television horror films" and vulgar comedies; without strange "rough" style music; mats and discos; theft and dishonor. At the word "faith" or "go to church," many of them begin to freak out and show their lazy nature. Everything is to blame for the TV, unbelief of parents and much more (temptation by the dark forces of evil).
In my work, I want to delve into faith, understand its structure and history. I hope that by writing it, I will be able to influence my soul and can then tell other people about what I have learned. Very scary and dangerous moments sometimes happen in our life when a person's life can "hang by a thread!" and then, for some reason, people begin to ask God to save them from sudden death or illness. It is very strange, because until this moment people do not even think about the fact that someday they will have to pay and answer for their terrible sins and unbelief before God. Therefore, we need to think about how to live life, so that later it would not be scary to die and meet God.
The history of the emergence of Christianity
The history of the Christian religion has more than two thousand years. But humanity, before giving preference to this world religion, has come a long historical way. During it, religious ideas and beliefs were formed. Christianity is based on the doctrine of the God-man Jesus Christ, who descended from heaven to earth (incarnated in the form of a man) and accepted suffering and death in order to atone for the original sin of mankind. After death, Christ was resurrected and ascended to heaven. In the future, according to Christian teaching, there will be a second coming of Christ to judge the living and the dead.
Christianity is characterized by the presence of strict commandments and rules set for its adherents. Followers of Christianity must fulfill the commandments of Christ, meekly endure the hardships of life. For observance and non-observance of all the rules, Christians are promised retribution in the afterlife, as I said in the introduction, this is Eternal Life. The confessional basis of Orthodoxy is made up of Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition. The basic principles of Orthodoxy are set forth in the 12 points of the creed adopted at the first two ecumenical councils. Christianity has its roots in the teachings of Jewish religious sects. Judea at the turn of our era was part of the Roman Empire and under the control of its governors. But in resolving certain vital issues, primarily judicial and religious, it granted autonomy to the priesthood, headed by the high priest of the Jerusalem temple, and to the Sanhedrin.
The second half of the first century BC and the entire first century of our era were the time of continuous protests of the population of Judea against Roman rule. All these speeches were mercilessly suppressed, which paved the way for the emergence among the oppressed Jews of eschatological ideas. The fairly stable Jewish tradition of waiting for the Messiah - a savior who will help the oppressed to free themselves from the power of strangers - also played its role. The continuous struggle with powerful enemies for independence, devastating enemy invasions, and the increasing exploitation of the Jews led to the formation of a part of the people staying outside their homeland.
As a result of this and other circumstances, a number of currents were formed in Judaism: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes. The first two currents were traditional. Esseism arose in the 2nd century. BC. In its ideas and in the organization of communities, it already contained much of what was then developed in early Christianity. Information about the Essenes was replenished after the discovery in 1947 of ancient manuscripts in the Qumran caves on the shores of the Dead Sea. The Essenes recognized the absoluteness of divine predestination and were distinguished by a strong belief in the immortality of the soul. Members of their sects were in opposition to official Judaism, strongly condemned slavery and trade. Gradually, the Essenes began to move away from the complex religious rituals of official Judaism. In addition to the Essene communities opposed to Judaism, other similar religious communities arose in the diaspora. This was due to the loss by the Jews of their former social and ideological unity. In the process of religious searches against the backdrop of the decline and decay of the Roman Empire, the idea of equality, the idea of salvation, the idea of the possibility of obtaining and finding happiness in the other world is formed and introduced into the minds of believers.
Religious syncretism, as well as some philosophical ideas, played a significant role in the formation and development of early Christian beliefs. Researchers of the emergence of Christianity note, in particular, the enormous influence of the philosophical ideas of the Neoplatonists on the process of the formation of the ideology of Christianity. Neoplatonism is a system of late antique idealism, which included many provisions and images of ancient religious and mythological teachings and legends. The founder of this trend in philosophy, Plotinus, systematized the objective idealism of Plato. In his theoretical constructions, he also used some of the ideas and views of Aristotle. Plotinus saw the source of being in the supernatural principle, which he thought of as a pure and simple unity, completely rejecting any multiplicity.
Christianity arose as a synthesis of Judaism, the teachings of the Stoics and some other elements of the cultural life of the Roman Empire.
Christianity arose at the crossroads of epochs, cultures, was able to combine the achievements of the spiritual and practical activities of mankind and adapt them to the needs of a new civilization, leaving the decrepit clothes of tribal and national religious ideas and beliefs behind the threshold.
The new religion was a contradictory set of ideas, often not even logically consistent with each other. The Christian religion had to go through a difficult path of adaptation to the surrounding society, and society had to survive and realize the collapse of the world order so that this religion could become the dominant and state religion.
An important role in the formation of Christianity was played by the democratic nature of early Christianity, which manifested itself primarily in the organization of communities of believers. The emergence of primitive Christianity is due to the idea of equality contained in it. The idea of equality was formulated as the equality of all people as sinful "creatures" before the powerful and all-merciful God. The desire for equality, which has always lived in the depths of the popular consciousness, helped to develop this religious system. In the early days of the existence of Christians, there was no church clergy in their communities. Christianity originated in Palestine in the 1st century AD. against the backdrop of the mystical-messianic movements of Judaism, as a religion of the oppressed and those who sought salvation from cruel conditions in the coming of a savior. The Roman Empire during this period stretched from the Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean and from North Africa to the Rhine. In 6 AD, after the death of Herod, dissatisfied with the civil strife between his sons, the Romans handed over the administration of Judea to the imperial procurator.
Christianity initially spread among the Jewish environment in Palestine and the countries of the Mediterranean basin, but already in the first decades of its existence it received a large number of followers from other peoples. In the second half of the 1st millennium, Christianity spread among the Germanic and Slavic peoples. Until the first half of the 2nd century, Christianity was a series of communities consisting of slaves, freedmen, and artisans. In the second half of the 2nd century, Christian writers already noted the presence of noble and wealthy people in the communities.
One of the important elements in the transition of Christianity to a fundamentally new level was its break with Judaism in the 2nd century. After that, the percentage of Jews in Christian communities began to steadily decrease. At the same time, Christians are abandoning the Old Testament laws: Sabbath observance, circumcision, and strict food restrictions. The expansion of Christianity and the involvement of a large number of people of various faiths in Christian communities led to the fact that Christianity of this period was not a single church, but a huge number of directions, groups, theological schools. The situation was complicated by a large number of heresies, the number of which, by the end of the 2nd century, the church historian of the end of the 4th century, Philastrius, determines the number of 156. dioceses. Large church centers were created in the most important political centers of the empire, primarily in the capitals. Christians accepted everyone who came to them and did not hide their belonging to the new religion. Thanks to the rich who came to them, the clergy gradually appeared - permanent clergymen and property managers. This is how it came about:
presbyters(elders)
deacons(servants)
bishops(guards).
The clergy soon declared themselves the sole bearer of divine grace, and later, through church teaching and church laws, secured this function for themselves.
The clergy erected their monopoly on divine grace to the twelve apostles - the disciples of Jesus Christ himself. The general crisis of the ancient worldview, the oppression of imperial power contributed to the entry into the ranks of the new faith of an increasing number of rich and educated people. Naturally, it was they, who were more educated and experienced in management, who took strong positions in the leadership of many communities.
The hope for the imminent second coming of the Savior contributed to the strengthening of their positions. Individual church leaders began to advocate the autocracy of the bishops, who later became the leaders of the communities in all matters, including dogma. In 323, the emperor of the Roman Empire, Constantine, moved the capital to the east, to the city of Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople. By order of Emperor Constantine, the First Ecumenical Council was convened in 325.
By the providence of God, in the year 326, the Life-Giving Cross was miraculously acquired by the mother of Constantine, the holy Empress Elena. At the beginning of the 4th century, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. At this time, the church organization is strengthened and the church hierarchy is officially formalized, the highest part of which becomes the episcopate.
Until the 5th century, the spread of Christianity took place mainly within the geographical boundaries of the Roman Empire, as well as in its sphere of influence - Armenia, Ethiopia, Syria.
Starting from the 7th century Christianity clashes with Islam and loses almost all of Africa and the Middle East. In the 11th century, as a result of the division of churches, the single Christian church split into Catholicism and the Eastern Church. The Eastern Church, in turn, split into many churches, where the Orthodox Church is the largest today. In the XIII-XIV centuries, Christianity spread among the Baltic peoples. By the XIV century, Christianity had almost completely conquered Europe, and from that time began to spread outside of Europe. In the 16th century, another branch of Christianity appeared in Europe - Protestantism. The emergence of Protestantism is associated with the Reformation - a powerful anti-Catholic movement. By the beginning of the 21st century, the number of Christians worldwide exceeds 1.5 billion, of which about half live in Europe.
Fundamentals of Christianity
The doctrine of the Christian religion from the moment of its inception to the present time has passed a rather thorny path of formation, development and upholding of its positions.
The original basis of early Christianity was faith in the redemptive sacrifice of the mission - Jesus Christ, who, having come into the world of people, suffered for their sins and resurrected, promising salvation for all who believed in him. . The first preachers convinced their listeners that the One God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and His power, endowed Him with the ability to do good to people and heal all those tempted by the Devil. He carried the truth about God for the revival of faith among God's chosen people, for which the atheists killed him. But God resurrected the murdered man on the third day after death and gave him the opportunity to appear before witnesses, before God's elect. All Christian prophets claimed that whoever believes in him will receive the remission of sins in his name.
The first Christians believed in the mission of Christ, that He suffered for the believing people, that He would return to earth to establish the kingdom of God on earth. Already in the early sermons, the foundations of Christian doctrine can be distinguished. These include: the idea of the sinfulness of the entire human race, which inherited the original sin of its forefathers Adam and Eve; the idea of the salvation of every person and the atonement of the guilt of all people before God, the path that Jesus Christ opened to humanity with His sufferings and voluntary sacrifice.
A characteristic feature of the beliefs of the early Christians was that their teaching did not yet act as an independent religion, i.e. it defended itself even within the framework of Judaism, but at the same time considered itself "true Judaism." The inability to physically change inhuman relations, oppression, forced Christians to direct the growing revolutionary protest against the existing order into a moral protest, which allowed the imperfection, inhumanity of social relations to be declared the result of the imperfection of each person, his original sinfulness.
All the activities of the early Christians were limited to promoting the benefits of their faith, developing and preserving their teachings among other religions. With the growth in the number of supporters of Christians and their communities in various parts of the empire, with the emergence of the clergy, the recognition of the Christian religion as the state religion, there was a need to bring all existing ideas about faith into a single system. The state needed a single religion, a single center for the management of religious organizations, i.e. United Church. But after the recognition of Christianity, sharp contradictions between various Christian communities in matters of faith, in the approach to explaining biblical texts and oral teachings, emerged and began to actively manifest themselves. All this did not allow to talk about a single religion and a single church.
The question of the emergence and spread of various heresies is quite complex and difficult in my opinion. The initial contradictions in the doctrine of Christians arose under the influence of the religious period of the birth of Christianity, on the one hand, and various cultural traditions of religion and philosophizing in various provinces of the Roman Empire, on the other. A striking example of such inconsistency can be considered the dogma of Arius. At the beginning of the IV century. the priest from Alexandria Arius began to preach his doctrine of the essence of the Trinity. He did not accept the consubstantiality of God the Father and God the Son. He believed that the Son of God, Jesus Christ, is not eternal. Only God is one and eternal, everything else is created. The Egyptian bishops opposed Arius, but he found supporters. Behind this theological dispute, in my opinion, was the complex interweaving of beliefs and traditions in the new religion, the desire for the uniqueness of the dogma. Arius and most of his supporters were from the urban environment, who had mastered the principles of ancient education. But the Christian doctrine was more focused on the mystical knowledge of the Creator and faith in a miracle, a miraculous resurrection, in the possibility of every believer to be saved through communion with the God-man.
In order to put an end to theological disputes, on the initiative of Emperor Constantine, the first Council of Christian representatives was convened, which later became known as the "First Ecumenical Council". At this council, Arius was excommunicated, his teaching was condemned as heretical. But after the Council of Bishops in the city of Nicaea in 325, the dispute about the essence of the Trinity did not subside for a long time. It was only at the Second Ecumenical Council of 381 that Christians finally developed a formulation of the essence of the divine Trinity.
In some regions, the teachings of Arius lasted until the middle of the 7th century. The essence of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed was expressed in the condemnation of what later came to be called subordinationism, i.e. subordination of God the Son to God the Father. The Council of Nicea, for the first time in the history of Christianity, attempted to formulate the main doctrinal provisions of the new religion, established the main dogma of the Christian doctrine - the dogma of the essence of the triune God. Being the one and only, God simultaneously exists in three persons: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
The Christian Church, fulfilling the decisions of the Council, demanded that theologians and clergy actively explain the dogmas. The rigid definition of the dogmatic foundations of the Christian doctrine and the requirement to strictly observe them led to the emergence of new theological tensions, new heresies and new upheavals for the church. Major theological disputes, heresies and schisms have always been due to different understandings and Christian conceptions of God. The history of the seven Ecumenical Councils is a vivid confirmation of this. Each of them was exposed to some heresy or some deviation from the church teaching about God.
Archpriest Alexander Schmemann wrote:
"The centuries between the fourth and eighth in the textbooks of church history are usually called the era of the Ecumenical Councils. And of course, in this process of the human mind entering the "mind of Truth" their enduring significance" . (New York, 1954).
The essence of the heresies that were discussed and condemned at the Ecumenical Councils was as follows: At the First and Second Ecumenical Councils, the teachings of Arius were condemned as not corresponding to the spirit of Christianity. The heresy of Nestoria (Nestorianism), condemned by the Third Council, consisted in the fact that the Virgin Mary gave birth not to God, but to a man, with whom, in addition to her, the Word of God, born of the Father, was united. The man Jesus, born of Mary, was only the abode of the deity and the instrument of human salvation, this man, through the influx of the Holy Spirit, became Christ, i.e. anointed one, and the word of God was with him in special conjunction. The heresy of Eutychius (Monophysianism), condemned by the Fourth and Fifth Councils, denied the human nature of Christ. In him, the human element was absorbed by the divine, and he had only apparent flesh. The heresy of the Monophilites, condemned by the Sixth Council, found in Christ not only two natures, but also two wills, which contradicted the established formulation. At the Council, after the condemnation of this heresy, it was decided to consider Christ as consisting of two qualities - human and divine, but possessing one will - divine. The iconoclastic heresy, which denied icon veneration, was condemned by the Seventh Council as idolatry. Even this short list of heresies condemned by the Councils gives an idea of how complex, painful, contradictory and ambiguous the Christian doctrine developed. However, the Councils met not only to condemn heresies, but mainly to work out the foundations of the Christian doctrine. The main thing in the development of Christian theory in the era of the Councils can be reduced to the following:
Council of Nicaea (325)
Formulated the first part of the creed of Christians, gave a definition of the divinity of the Son of God Jesus Christ;
Council of Constantinople (381)
Formulated the second part of the creed, defining the divinity of the Holy Spirit;
Ephesus Cathedral (431)
Chalkendon Cathedral (451)
Confirmed the humanity of Jesus Christ through the recognition of his human will and actions ;
II Council of Nicaea (787)
The Creed adopted by the first two Councils. Here is its formula:
"We believe in one God the Father, the Almighty. The Creator of heaven and earth, visible to all and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God. The Only Begotten, Who was born from the Father before all ages: Light from Light, true God from true God. She was born, uncreated, consubstantial with the Father, He was all by Him. on the third day, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father, and will judge the living and the dead again in glory, and His Kingdom will have no end."
Ephesus Cathedral (431)
He gave the definition of Jesus Christ as the incarnate Word of God, and Mary - as the Mother of God;
Chalkendon Cathedral (451)
Defined Jesus Christ as true God and true man rolled into one;
II Council of Constantinople (553)
Confirmed the doctrine of one God (Trinity) and Jesus Christ;
III Council of Constantinople (680)
Confirmed the human nature of Jesus Christ through the recognition of his human will and actions;
II Council of Nicaea (787)
He proclaimed the icon the true expression of the Christian faith.
After the Council of Nicaea and the controversy about the Son of God, a controversy arose about the Holy Spirit as an integral part of the triune God. Council of Constantinople added the following definition to the Nicene formula: "And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the life-giving, who is from the outgoing Father, Who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who spoke the prophets. In One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. I confess one baptism in the remission of sins. Tea resurrection of the dead. And the life of the age to come. Amen." In addition, the creed had to be made in the first person, with the addition of the word "I believe ..." before each member of the creed. Thus, there is every reason to assert that the teaching of Christians is the fruit of the work of theologians, which over the centuries has changed and developed in accordance with the general need of the believing consciousness. The entire history of the founding of the Christian Church, as well as the beginning of its doctrine, is set forth in the New Testament.
The New Testament is an agreement, a covenant between God and man, replacing the Old Testament, as well as a collection of books that are an expression of this agreement. If in the Old Testament the relationship between God and man is based, as it were, on the form of a legal contract, on the observance of all the commandments (the Law), then in the New Testament this simple observance is no longer enough. The Old Testament is limited to one chosen people. The New Covenant is made for every person who is willing to accept it. New Testament legislation is expressed by Christ in the Sermon on the Mount. There are 27 holy books in the New Testament:
4 Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, seven epistles, 14 epistles of the Apostle Paul and the Apocalypse of the Apostle John the Theologian. Two of the Gospels belong to the apostles of the 12 - Saints Matthew and John, two - to the companions and disciples of the apostles, Saints Mark and Luke.
The Book of Acts was also written by a collaborator of the Apostle Paul - Luke. Of the seven conciliar epistles, five belong to the apostles out of 12 - Peter and John, and two - to James and Jude, who also bore the title of apostles, although they did not belong to the number of 12. Fourteen epistles were written by Paul, who, although he was called later than the rest of the apostles, but as called by Christ himself, is an apostle equal to 12 apostles. The Apocalypse was written by the Apostle John the Theologian. By their content, the books of the New Testament are usually divided into law-positive- The Four Gospels, which contains the foundation of the entire Christian faith. historical- The Acts of the Apostles and the Four Gospels, which contain a historical depiction of the life of Jesus Christ and the apostles. teaching- Epistles of the apostles, in which they explain the various foundations of the Christian faith and life. prophetic- The Apocalypse, which contains various visions of the Apostle John the Theologian about the future fate of the Church. Some prophecies are also found in other books of the New Testament. The original text of the New Testament has come down to us primarily in a large number of ancient manuscripts, more or less complete, numbering about 5 thousand (from the 2nd to the 16th centuries). Until recently, the most ancient of them dated back to the 4th century. The most important of these are the Codex Sinaiticus, the Alexandrian (both in London) and the Vatican (Vatican) manuscripts. Archaeological finds have enriched New Testament science with many papyrus manuscripts dating back to the 3rd and 2nd centuries. For example, the Bodmer manuscripts found and published in the 1960s.
In addition to Greek manuscripts, there are numerous ancient translations into Latin, Syriac, and Coptic, the oldest of which have existed since the 2nd century. In addition, numerous quotations of the Fathers of the Church in Greek and other languages have been preserved. The original text of the Holy
Scripture, like any ancient text in general, was continuous, with no division between words and sentences. Over time, a division of the text appeared for ease of reading and finding individual places and expressions. So, for example, the deacon Ammonius of Alexandria (2nd-3rd century) broke the text of the New Testament into very small pericopes (Greek "segment") - up to one sentence. The pericopes of Ammonius make it possible to compare the parallel narratives of the New Testament, both identical and similar. To do this, Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea, church historian and theologian of the 4th century, compiled 10 "canons", or tables, in which he combined identical in content and consonant narrations of the Gospels. They have not lost their significance to this day, although in modern publications (since the 19th century) the so-called parallel places are more often used, which, however, do not exhaust all the parallels. In addition, from the 5th century, red lines and cinnabar letters appeared, which began to highlight liturgical passages (pericopes) of the text.
Gradually, each passage was assigned to a specific day of the liturgical year. There were even whole collections, called Aprakos Gospels, in which the gospel narratives were arranged not in chronological order, but in the order of their readings at divine services throughout the year. Modern chapter division in the New Testament, as in the entire Bible, dates back to the 13th century. In 1205 the Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton first divided the Bible into chapters. This division was used for his Biblical concordance (symphony) by the Spanish cardinal Hugues de Saint-Cher (d. 1263), who is therefore often considered the author of dividing the Bible into chapters. In 1551, the Parisian publisher Robert Stephan, in his edition of the New Testament, introduced the division into verses, which is now accepted in all editions of the New Testament.
The New Testament canon was established during the first centuries of Christian history. Already by the second half of the 2nd century, the following holy books were recognized as divinely inspired and apostolic works throughout the Church: the four Gospels, the book of the Acts of the Apostles, the 13 epistles of the Apostle Paul, the first John and the first Peter. The rest of the books were less common, although they were recognized as authentic. The Easter epistle of St. Athanasius of Alexandria (367). After listing all 27 books of the New Testament, St. Athanasius says that only in these books is the teaching of piety proclaimed, and that nothing can be taken away from this collection of books, just as nothing can be added to it. The canon of the New Testament proposed by Athanasius the Great was accepted by the entire Eastern (Orthodox) Church. In the Western Church, the canon of the New Testament in its present form was finally adopted at the Hippo (393) and two Carthaginian (397 and 419) councils. The canon adopted by these councils was sanctioned by the Roman Church by decree of Pope Gelasius (492-496). Christian books that were not included in the canon, although they claimed to be, were recognized as apocryphal.
Sirachov, the Epistle of Nehemiah, the book of Baruch, the 3 books of the Makovites and the 3rd book of Ezra. These books are considered non-canonical because they are not found in the original Hebrew, but are known from a Greek translation. Catholicism regards these books as canonical of the second order. Orthodoxy considers them apocryphal, but includes them in the edition of the Bible, as books useful for spiritual reading. Protestantism rejects these books, considering them apocrypha, and does not include them in the Bible. At the third Ecumenical Council, which took place in Carthage in 397, the first complete list of the New Testament books was created in the order in which we have it now. In the 5th century AD The Word of God has already been called the Old and New Testaments. In the 13th century, Cardinal Stephen Langton divided the text of the Bible into chapters. In the 16th century, the Parisian printer Robber Stephan divided the chapters of the Bible into verses and numbered these verses. This division into chapters and verses in the modern Bible is preserved to this day.
In Christianity, the following rites are accepted:
Liturgy(church service)
First of all, it convinces believers to constantly remember Jesus Christ, who suffered death on the cross for the sake of people, gave his life for their salvation, makes them deeply feel all the greatness of the Lord's love. In the church action, everything is subordinated to this idea, each object used to make the sacrament contains deep symbolism. prosphora- Body of Christ.
Tray with prosphora ( paten), also symbolizes the manger in which the Savior lay at birth. Wine for communion- this is the Blood of Christ, and water is added to it because during the execution of Christ, both blood and water flowed from under his rib. Zvezdnitsa, placed on a tray during the service, means the star of Bethlehem, which was seen by the Magi at the time of the birth of the baby Christ. Chalice(bowl) and dish(discos) with a star are covered with small covers, over which a large cover is laid. Small coverlets mean the shroud with which the infant Christ was wrapped, and the large one - the shroud, which covered the body of Christ after being taken down from the cross.
While the bread and wine for communion are being prepared, the hours are "sung" on the kliros: three, six, nine, denoting the last significant moments in the life of Christ and his disciples. At three o'clock in the morning the Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles, at six o'clock the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and at nine the death of the Savior occurred. Prayer petitions, with which the liturgy begins, always end with the glorification of the Trinity. Then the "royal gates" are opened and the ministers take out the gospel and a burning candle from the side doors. The gospel means the Savior of Christ, going to teach the people, and the burning candle - John the Baptist, who prepared the people for the acceptance of the God-man and his teachings. The opening of the royal doors in front of the small passage and kissing them by the priest means that Jesus Christ opened the entrance to the kingdom of heaven for believers and reconciled them with God.
After that it starts "Substantial Ektinya", those. intensified prayer to the Lord, which also ends with the glorification of the Holy Trinity. Followed by " Ektinya of the catechumens", during which believers pray for the forgiveness of sins, ask God to send them rich mercies, to honor those who are still preparing to accept the faith of Christ with holy baptism. This part of the liturgy, like the previous one, ends with the glorification of the Trinity. "Ektinya of the catechumens"is designed to remind Christians how the first followers of the Christian religion honored the liturgy, how strict their morality was, and by their example to teach everyone to honor the church service, come to it with a clear conscience and listen to it with reverence. Then follows "great move", symbolizing the procession of Jesus Christ to suffering and death, as well as the transfer of His body from Golgotha to the burial place. Having placed the holy gifts on the throne, the priest closes the "royal gates", lowers the veil, which means that Christ is in the tomb and the seal is attached to the gates of the cemetery. After "begging ektinya" the priest opens the veil, which means that all those who pray before the throne of the Lord must testify to faith in God the Father, the Son of the Savior and the Holy Spirit, faith in the church and its sacraments, in the resurrection from the dead and the future afterlife.
Then all the worshipers sing the Christian creed. And finally, the time comes (according to the teaching of Christian preachers, the most important in the entire liturgy), when the sacrament is performed communion, where bread and wine for a believing Christian become the Blood and Body of Christ. Before communion, the priest reminds the worshipers of the events of the last Last Supper of Christ with his disciples. After communion, when everyone who had the right took communion, the priest blesses the worshipers, reminding them of the blessing given by Jesus Christ to the disciples before his death, and the subsequent resurrection and His ascension to heaven. Concludes the liturgy "small Ektinya" And "prayer prayer", after which the worshipers, venerating the cross, go home. By kissing the cross and letting others kiss it, the priest reminds once again of the victory of faith in God over sin.
Daily Orthodox church services are composed of evening, morning, afternoon services, each of which, in turn, consists of three parts:
evening the service includes the third hour, Vespers and Compline;
morning- midnight office, first hour, matins;
daytime- the third hour, the sixth and directly the liturgy.
Each part of the daily service is dedicated to reminding believers of the pages of the life of the Savior. ninth hour- the last day of Jesus Christ, the moment of his "death". Vespers- marks the removal from the cross of the Savior and the position in the tomb; Vespers- means that the soul of Christ unites with God, by his death Christ frees the souls of people; Midnight Office- symbolizes the life of Christ before death, "Gethsemane Garden", arrest and coming to the high priest, humiliation and suffering; Matins- displays the suffering of Christ in the courtyard of Caiaphas from midnight to morning; First hour- the transfer of Christ from the high priest to Pilate, the cruelty of the elders and bishops of the Jews; third hour- the time of the Savior's suffering from condemnation to the ascent to Golgotha and the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles; sixth hour- Jesus carried the cross, was crucified, his life-giving death came. The liturgy is a synthesis of all the individual aspects of the entire worship of the church, since it is "a contraction of the entire Gospel, an image of the earthly life of Jesus Christ." The liturgy is designed to influence the faithful. Liturgical practice reflects the life of the church.
There are seven Christian sacraments:
Ø Baptism,
Ø chrismation,
Ø communion,
Ø repentance,
Ø priesthood,
Ø marriage,
Ø unction.
The sacraments require water for baptism, bread and wine for the Eucharist, oil, a legal priest or bishop. The invocation of the Holy Spirit and the well-known form of words with which the priest sanctifies the sacrament by the power of the Holy Spirit. The meaning of the Christian sacraments can be understood by the example of some of them.
Baptism
Baptism is given first place among all the sacraments. It is the first step towards God. Baptism is the process of immersing a person in water with the words "In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit."
During baptism, sanctification and cleansing by God's grace from original sin takes place. This necessary Christian ritual must be performed by every true believer "in order to be a child of God and of Christ." The rite of baptism helps the believer to be reborn spiritually, to be cleansed of sins, to become a member of the church, to be saved from punishment for sins.
Chrismation
In the rite of chrismation, some parts of the body are smeared crosswise with oil (myrrh) with the words: "The seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit." The ceremony of chrismation is entrusted to be performed by the same persons of the clergy as baptism, and it takes place immediately after it. In chrismation, a person is given "strength from above" for a new life received in baptism. Just as Christ is the Anointed One of God, so, according to the fathers, man becomes together with Him, Christ, the anointed one, the son of God. Together with baptism and chrismation, the newborn becomes churched.
Communion (Eucharist)
This sacrament, according to the teachings of Christians, is the heart of church life, the source and goal of all church teachings and institutions. In church tradition, the very word "eucharist" means "thanksgiving". In addition to the term "Eucharist", this rite is called communion, because it is a mystical communion, the communion of people with God, with each other, with all mankind and everything that exists through Christ in the Holy Spirit. In Communion (Eucharist) through wine and bread, believers partake of the Body and Blood of Christ the Savior.
This sacrament is performed during the central (main) service - the liturgy. All components of the liturgical cycle are only preparation for the celebration of the liturgy. I will note that, according to Christians, at the Eucharist there is "the actual presence of Jesus Christ." This Christian sacrament gives the believer the opportunity to unite with Christ, strengthen in faith, and receive a pledge of the future Resurrection.
Repentance
Repentance is a necessary moment of justification of sins. The meaning of this action boils down to the fact that if a Christian receives various gifts of grace received during baptism and chrismation, then in his daily life he is constantly exposed to the wiles of the devil, temptations, and the evil of our world exerts constant pressure. At the same time, the soul of a Christian is subject to sin, while the body remains sick and mortal. All this separates a person from God. Therefore, a means is needed that would prevent the believer from drifting away from God. Repentance is such a means, helping a person to be cleansed of sins and reunite with God. According to the teachings of Christian teachers, the sacrament of repentance is performed by God himself through the ministers of the church.
The believer must constantly lament over sins, strive to improve, have firm faith in Christ and hope for His mercy, verbally and frankly state his sins to the priest, and then he will receive God's forgiveness. The sacrament of repentance is repeated many times. It is also called the second baptism, baptism with tears for the purification of conscience.
Marriage
Marriage is a sacrament in which, with a free promise before the priest and the church, the bride and groom of mutual fidelity, their marital union is blessed, as an image of the union of Christ with the church, and they ask for the grace of pure unanimity for the blessed birth and Christian upbringing of children. The main purpose of marriage is the birth and upbringing of children. Christian marriage is the true sacrament of the New Testament. In his epistle to the Ephesians (V 25-33), the apostle Paul depicts the marriage union of a man and a woman as a sacred symbol of the union of Christ with the church, and the union of Christ with the church as the highest standard of Christian marriage. By this comparison, the apostle Paul indicates that marriage was regarded by him as a genuine sacrament. Saints Athanasius, John Chrysostom and other religious teachers speak of Christian marriage as a solemn rite with special grace.
Priesthood (ordination)
According to the teachings of the church, the sacrament of the priesthood is performed only on a male person belonging to the clergy, Orthodox believers who are in their first marriage, consecrated by the church, or who have taken monastic vows and have been elected to be elevated to one of the three degrees of the church hierarchy: deacon, presbyter, bishop. This sacrament is also called ordination, or consecration ("khir" - hand, "tifimi" - I believe).
Unction (unction)
Unction - the sacrament of healing and anointing the body with oil. Its purpose is to lead a person into the life of the Kingdom of God. The unction takes place in order to help a person in illness and sorrow, to make a person a disciple, a confessor, a witness of Christ, so that he also sees heaven and the Son of Man at the right hand of God the Father. The consecration of the oil is performed on persons of the Orthodox confession. The Sacrament of Unction can also be administered to physically healthy people during the period of the general unction. By tradition, the general unction is usually performed on the Cross or Holy Week, on Vespers of Great Thursday or Holy Saturday.
The sacraments and rituals in Christianity are performed by the clergy:
Deacon
(Greek "diakonos" - minister) - a clergyman of the first (junior) degree who serves at the sacraments. A deacon who is in the monastic rank is called a hierodeacon, and one who has accepted the schema is called a schema-deacon. The senior deacon in white (married) clergy is called protodeacon (first deacon), and in monasticism, archdeacon (senior deacon).
Presbyter
(Greek "presbyteros" - elder), otherwise called a priest, or priest (Greek "jereis" - priest), a clergyman who can perform six of the seven sacraments, with the exception of the sacrament of consecration, and is subordinate to the bishop. Only a deacon (married or monastic) can be ordained to the rank of presbyter. The presbyter, who is in the monastic rank, is called a hieromonk, and the one who has accepted the schema is called a hieromonk. The elders of the presbyters of the white clergy are called archpriests, protopresbyters, i.e. the first priests, the first presbyters, and the monastics - abbots, i.e. leaders of the monastic brethren, archimandrites, (i.e., abbots of monastic cloisters who accepted the schema - shiigumen and schiarchimandrites.)
Bishop
(Greek "episcopos" - overseer) - a clergyman of the highest degree, performs all seven sacraments and has the power to give others this gift of grace through the sacrament of ordination. A bishop is also called a bishop, or hierarch, i.e. clergyman, sometimes a hierarch. The dignity of a bishop in church-administrative terms has five degrees. A vicar bishop (or chorepiscop) has authority over the parishes of a small town and a group of villages, which is called a vicariate. The bishop governs the parishes of an entire region, called a diocese. An archbishop (i.e. a senior bishop) often administers a larger diocese.
Metropolitan
This is the bishop of a large city and the surrounding area, who may have vicegerents in the person of vicar bishops. Exarch, i.e. the original ruling bishop (usually a metropolitan) of a large metropolitan city. Several dioceses are subject to him, which are part of the exarchate with their bishops and archbishops, who are his deputies. Patriarch, father leader, primate of the Local Church, elected and installed at the Council - the highest rank of the church hierarchy. To the monastic name of a bishop is always added the name of the diocese he rules, the exarchate, and to the name of the patriarch is the full name of the Local Church he leads.
Reasons for the split
The threat of a split became real already in the middle of the ninth century. Researchers perceive the peculiarities of the doctrine, cult, and way of life of believers in Western and Eastern Christianity as something secondary, insignificant, hindering the clarification of the true reasons, which, in their opinion, lie in the economy and politics, in anything, but not in the religious specifics of what is happening. Meanwhile, Catholicism and Orthodoxy had such features that significantly influenced the consciousness, life, behavior, culture, art, science, philosophy of Western and Eastern Europe.
Between the Catholic and Orthodox worlds, not only a confessional, but also a civilizational border has developed. Christianity was not a single religious movement. Spreading through the numerous provinces of the Roman Empire, it adapted to the conditions of each country, to the prevailing social relations and local traditions. The consequence of the decentralization of the Roman state was the emergence of the first four independent churches:
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem.
Soon the Cypriot and then the Georgian Orthodox Church separated from the Antiochian Church.
However, the matter was not limited to the division of Christian churches. Some refused to recognize the decisions of the ecumenical councils and the dogma approved by them. In the middle of the 5th century, the Armenian clergy did not agree with the condemnation of the Council of Chalcedon. Thus, the Armenian Church placed itself in a special position, adopting a dogma that contradicted the dogma of Christianity. One of the largest divisions of Christianity was the emergence of two main directions - Orthodoxy and Catholicism.
This split has been brewing for several centuries. It was determined by the peculiarities of the development of feudal relations in the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire and the competitive struggle between them. The prerequisites for a split arose at the end of the 4th beginning. - V c. Having become the state religion, Christianity was already inseparable from the economic and political upheavals experienced by this huge power.
During the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople, it appeared to be relatively unified, despite internal strife and theological disputes. However, this unity was based not on the recognition by all of the authority of the Roman bishops, but on the authority of the emperors, which also extended to the religious area. The Council of Nicaea was held under the leadership of Emperor Constantine, and the Roman episcopate was represented by presbyters Vitus and Vincent. As for the strengthening of the power of the Roman bishop, it was connected with the prestige of the capital of the empire, and then with the claim of Rome to possess the apostolic throne in memory of the apostles Peter and Paul. Monetary handouts from Constantine and the construction of a temple on the site of the "martyrdom of Peter" contributed to the exaltation of the Roman bishop. In 330g. The capital of the empire was moved from Rome to Constantinople. The absence of the imperial court automatically brought spiritual power to the forefront of public life. Deftly, the Roman bishop managed to strengthen his influence. Taking advantage of the situation, he gathered in 343 in the city of Sardica all the western bishops and achieved recognition of the right of arbitration and actual primacy. Eastern bishops never recognized these decisions.
In 395 the empire collapsed. Rome again became the capital, but now only the western part of the former empire. Political turmoil in it contributed to the concentration in the hands of the bishops of extensive administrative rights. Already in 422, Boniface the First, in a letter to the bishops of Thessaly, openly declared his claims to the primacy in the Christian world, arguing that the attitude of the Roman church to all others is similar to the attitude of the "head to the members."
Beginning with the Roman Bishop Leo, called the Great, the Western bishops considered themselves only locum tenens, i.e. actual vassals of Rome, governing the respective dioceses on behalf of the Roman high priest. However, such dependence was never recognized by the bishops of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch.
In 476 the Western Roman Empire fell. On its ruins, many feudal states were formed, the rulers of which competed among themselves for primacy. All of them sought to justify their claims by the will of God, received from the hands of the high priest. This further raised the authority, influence and power of the Roman bishops. With the help of political intrigues, they managed not only to strengthen their influence in the Western world, but even to create their own state, the Papal States (756-1870), which occupied the entire central part of the Apennine Peninsula. Starting from the 5th c. the title of Pope was assigned to the bishops of Rome. Initially, in Christianity, all priests were called popes. Over the years, this title began to be assigned only to bishops, and many centuries later it was assigned only to the Roman bishops.
The formation of the Western Empire in the 8th century, which arose in opposition to Byzantium, contributed to the strengthening of papal claims to primacy in the church. Crowned in Rome in 763, Pepin the Short, the leader of the Franks, presented to Pope Stephen II (752-759) the Exarchate of Ravenna, which belonged to the Greeks, as well as other lands in Italy, as a token of gratitude. Since then, those who have spiritual power have also become secular sovereigns. Having received temporal power, the popes did their best to be rulers in politics, with the support of Western emperors. Having consolidated their power in the West, the popes tried to subjugate all of Christianity, but to no avail.
The Eastern clergy were subordinate to the emperor, and he did not even think of giving up at least part of his power in favor of the self-styled "Vicar of Christ", who sat on the episcopal chair in Rome. A long period of enmity ensued between the pope and the patriarch of Constantinople, which either escalated or subsided. Sufficiently serious differences between Rome and Constantinople appeared as early as at the Council of Trula in 692, when out of 85 rules, Rome (the Pope of Rome) accepted only 50. Collections of Dionysius and others came into circulation, which omitted the rules not accepted by Rome and thus, emphasizing the line of schism . In 867, Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople publicly cursed each other. The reason for the discord was the converted to Christianity Bulgaria, since each of them sought to subordinate it to his influence.
After some time, this conflict was settled, but the enmity between the two highest hierarchs of Christianity did not stop there. In the XI century. it flared up with renewed vigor, and in 1054 there was a final split in Christianity. It was caused by the claims of Pope Leo IX to the territories subordinate to the patriarch. Patriarch Michael Cerularios rejected these harassments, followed by mutual ecclesiastical curses and accusations of heresy. The Western Church began to be called the Roman Catholic, which meant the Roman world church, and the Eastern - Orthodox, i.e. true to dogma.
Catholicism
Catholicism(Greek - universal, universal) - one of the main directions in Christianity. The Catholic Church is strictly centralized, has a single world center (Vatican), a single head - the Pope, who crowns the multi-level hierarchy of Catholicism. Among Roman Catholics, the pope is considered the vicar of Jesus Christ on earth, infallible in matters of faith and morality. His power is higher than the power of the Ecumenical Councils (according to the teachings of the Catholic Church).
Catholicism is the dominant denomination in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Austria, Latin American countries. Catholics predominate among the believing part of the population in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Cuba. There are followers of Catholicism in the Baltic States (mainly in Lithuania), in the western regions of Belarus, Ukraine.
The modern Catholic Church has a huge army of clergy subject to strict discipline, numerous monastic orders, missionary, charitable and other religious organizations and institutions. Secular mass organizations also adjoin it: political parties, trade unions, youth, women's and other associations. For their purposes, Catholics make extensive use of the press, radio, cinema, television, publishing houses, Catholic educational institutions, and so on. Catholicism (especially modern) and its organizations are distinguished by the ability to adapt to changes in the world.
The international center of the Roman Catholic Church and the residence of the pope is located in the Vatican. The State of the Vatican (an area of 44 hectares, about 1 thousand citizens) has its own coat of arms, flag, anthem, guards, maintains diplomatic relations with more than 100 states of the world. Through the Roman central administrative apparatus (curia) - the pope directs church and secular organizations operating in most countries of the world. According to the reform carried out in accordance with the apostolic constitution "Good Shepherd" (1988), the Roman curia includes a state secretariat, 9 congregations (overseeing various areas of the church's activities), 12 councils, 3 tribunals and 3 offices. According to the decision of the Second Vatican Council, under the pope, a church synod acts with an advisory vote, convened once every three years. It consists of patriarchs and metropolitans of the Eastern Catholic Churches, representatives of national episcopal conferences, monastic orders, and persons personally appointed by the pope. There are over 400,000 priests in the Catholic Church. Among the special duties of the Catholic clergy is the observance of celibacy (celibacy). Important positions in the Catholic Church belong to monasticism, organized in congregations and brotherhoods.
At present, there are about 140 monastic orders, which are led by the Vatican Congregation for Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life. Monastic associations specialize in missionary work and charity.
The most influential monastic orders are the Order of the Dominicans, the Franciscans, and especially the Order of the Jesuits. Special associations of priests and laity are also created. The largest and most powerful of them is the "God's Cause", which has 72 thousand members in 87 countries of the world. His followers teach at 475 universities around the world, occupy key positions in government agencies and the media. Sacred Tradition The Catholic Church considers as canonical all the books included in the Latin translation of the Bible (Vulgate). The right to interpret the texts of the Bible is given only to the clergy. Sacred tradition is formed by the decrees of the 21 councils, as well as the judgments of the Roman popes on ecclesiastical and secular problems. Following the Niceno-Constantinopolitan symbol, other decisions of the first seven councils, the Catholic Church creates its own understanding of a number of dogmas. At the Council of Toledo in 589, an addition was made to the creed about the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son. In the salvation of people burdened with original sin, Catholic doctrine assigns a special role to the church. It is designed to help a person recover the lost ability to achieve eternal salvation. This mission is carried out with the help of the treasury of overdue deeds, i.e. a surplus of good deeds done by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints. As the vicar of Christ on earth, the pope manages this treasury of overdue deeds, distributing them among those who need them.
Catholicism recognizes all seven sacraments.
sacrament of baptism carried out by dousing with water, while in Orthodoxy only by immersion in water.
Sacrament of Confirmation (Confirmation) takes place at the age of eight. In addition to the recognition of the existence of heaven and hell, common to Christian movements, the Catholic Church formulated
doctrine of purgatory- an intermediate place where the souls of sinners are cleansed, passing through severe trials. The dogma of purgatory was adopted by the Council of Florence in 1439 and confirmed in 1562 by the Council of Trent. Catholicism is characterized by an exalted veneration of the Virgin Mary.
In 1854 was adopted the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, and in 1950 - the dogma of the bodily ascension of the Mother of God, according to which the Most Holy Theotokos of the Ever-Virgin was taken to heaven "with soul and body for the glory of heaven." In 1954, a special holiday dedicated to the "Queen of Heaven" was established.
Doctrine of the Holy Spirit: Section 8 of the Creed speaks of the necessity of faith
"Into the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father." This means that the Holy Spirit can only come from God the Father. However, starting from 8-9 in. The Pope tried to add filioque to this symbol .
Filioque translated from lat. - "And from the son". This is a pretty significant addition. It means that the Holy Spirit can come not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son, that is, from Jesus Christ.
Sacrament of Communion (Eucharist) it is sent to Catholics with unleavened bread (unleavened bread), and for Orthodox, leavened bread. Catholic laity receive communion only with bread. Only those who have received the sacrament of chrismation in the sacrament of anointing with unction are allowed to receive communion with Catholics. The oil must be consecrated by the Catholics by the bishop, and the sacrament itself is performed not over the seriously ill, as in Orthodoxy, but over the dying.
In Catholicism, the cult of angels, saints, icons, relics is preserved;
Canonization(ranking among the "saints"),
Beatification(elevation to the rank of "blessed").
The center of cult and ritual rituals is the temple, decorated with paintings and sculptures on religious themes. The head of the Catholic Church, the vicar of Jesus Christ, the supreme ruler of the state of the Vatican is the Pope.
The special status of the popes is justified by their inheritance of power, transferred by Jesus Christ to the Apostle Peter, according to church tradition, the former first bishop of Rome. The pope is elected for life by a conclave of cardinals. According to the dogma of the Catholic Church, adopted by the Vatican Council (1870), the Pope is considered infallible in matters of faith and morality. If we group the main differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy, they can be presented as follows:
However, the differences between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, of course, do not end there. If we compare Catholic and Orthodox churches, we can immediately note different value approaches. The specificity of Orthodoxy and Catholicism is manifested everywhere - from family and marriage relations to attitudes towards science and art.
Protestantism
Protestantism (lat. flow - objecting, disagreeing). It is used to designate one of the main currents in Christianity, formed during the Reformation of the 16th century in Europe, as a protest against the ideology and practice of the Catholic Church and uniting many independent movements, churches and sects.
Reform movement in the 16th century was prepared by the whole course of development of the Catholic Church. In all strata of Western Christian society, dissatisfaction with the then situation, the state of affairs in the church and clergy, was brewing for a long time.
Representatives of religious communities persistently demanded that the Pope renounce secular power, limiting himself to spiritual power within the activities of the Catholic Church, that the higher hierarchs and clergy strictly observe the norms of morality in life, that indulgences be canceled, public religious education be improved, piety in the church be restored, etc. .P. During the XV century. many progressive theologians substantiated the need for fundamental changes in the life of the church. The University of Paris at that time became the center for the dissemination of reformist ideas. From here came many scientists, champions of reforms: the chancellor of the university, John Gerson (the rector of the university, Nikolai von Clemente), and others.
Individual scientists and religious figures - Joey Wyclef in England, Jan Hus in the Czech Republic, Savonarol in Italy - also protested against the reactionary order in the church. These scattered speeches prepared the future Reformation. The Catholic Church for a long time fiercely defended the medieval order, not wanting to part with its power.
At the beginning of the XVI century. the church still possessed great power, and wherever a protest against the old order was brewing or was only conceived, emissaries of the Inquisition appeared and, following papal orders, lit their fires (this is how Jan Hus was burned at the stake). However, gradually by this time the anti-church movement was gaining more and more scope and strength. The social base of the reformers was extremely diverse: heads of state who sought political independence from Rome, industrialists and merchants who suffered from the tax burden and feudal fragmentation, cultural and scientific figures outraged by outdated church dogma, as well as peasants mercilessly exploited by feudal lords, among whom the church was one of the main feudal lords. The interests of all the dissatisfied were intertwined in one tangle, although each of the participants in the movement defended their interests, but in general, all these forces were united by a single goal - to undermine the omnipotence of the church and alleviate their own situation.
The diversity of the "coalition" introduced certain contradictions into its ranks, which adversely affected the course and development of the Reformation in Europe. The Reformation was also weakened by representatives of anti-church forces who did not even think about leaving the protection of the Catholic Church, but only sought to limit the influence of Roman Catholics on their life activities to a certain extent.
The beginning of the active period was laid by the Augustinian monk martin luther, who became the leader and founder of a new religious trend in Christianity. Martin Luther was born into a poor family in 1483 Educated at the University of Erfurt. Being a zealous Catholic, in 1505 he entered (as a novice and a monk) in the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt. In 1507 he became a priest, and in 1508 he went to work at the University of Wittenberg, where in 1512 he received a doctorate in theology and a professorship of biblical studies, which he retained for the rest of his life. In 1510, Martin Luther, having visited Rome, was convinced of the licentiousness of the inhabitants of the papal court and the Roman clergy and received a true idea of the imaginary "holiness" of the servants of the Roman church.
The formal occasion for a broad movement of reformers was the events 1517 in Germany. In this ill-fated year for the Roman Catholics, the Dominican monk Tetzel, on behalf of Pope Leo X, organized in Germany a wide sale of indulgences for absolution of punishments not only for committed sins, but also for future ones. Luther, watching the sale, spoke out against this blasphemy. As a priest, he refused his parishioners, who bought indulgences from Tetzel, to pray for permission, explaining that indulgences, although they come from the Roman High Priest, do not save sinners from punishment. Only his inner contrition for sins, sincere repentance, determination to improve and renewal of life to achieve Christian virtues can save a person from punishment. Indulgence, on the other hand, giving rise to moral laziness and southern arrogance in a person, leads a person to spiritual degradation and death. A sharp struggle ensued between the representative of the papal throne Tetzel II Luther. Tetzel threatened Luther with excommunication for heretical speeches and with his right to burn heretics. Outraged by this behavior,
Luther wrote 95 theses, in which he substantiated the harm for Christians of indulgences, the doctrine of supernatural deeds and purgatory. According to the custom of that time, he hung theses on the gates of the church of the Wittenberg castle and challenged Tetzel to a dispute. At that time Luther did not yet think of any reform of the church. The main idea of his theses is that in order to save a sinner, it requires inner repentance, which cannot be bought, replaced by an external monetary sacrifice. The struggle between Luther and the Dominican was soon heard in various German cities. Many devout Catholics sympathized with Luther. Even the Saxon elector (a prince who has the right to participate in the election of the emperor) Frederick the Wise took his side. The Pope at first saw in Luther's clash with the Dominican an ordinary, though unpleasant for him, dispute between representatives of different monastic orders.
In 1518, he summoned Luther to Rome, but the University of Wittenberg asked to deal with this matter on the spot. Then the Pope instructed the local cardinal Caetan to settle the dispute. However, Luther, encouraged by a successful dispute, strongly advocated the reformation of the church, not making any concessions to the papacy. In 1520, he published an appeal "To the Imperial Majesty and the Christian Chivalry of the German Nation", in which he called on everyone to reject the papacy and its yoke. This appeal instantly spread throughout Germany and increased the ranks of the supporters of the Reformation. Latin theologians reported to Pope Leo X that the controversy surrounding Luther's theses and his rebellious outlook threatened the church with great danger. In response, Rome issued a bull excommunicating Luther from the church.
On December 10, 1520, not so long ago, an exemplary monk publicly burned a papal bull excommunicating him from the church. This was an unheard of bold challenge not only to the letter of faith, but also to the power of mighty Rome. Only the intercession of secular power saved Luther from death. In Germany, he was supported by many professors of theology, priests, students, knights and princes. The schism began - the formal separation of Luther and his followers from the Roman Catholic Church. The papal legates lost all authority in Germany, and their criticism of the activities of the reformers did not resonate with the faithful. Meanwhile, Luther and his associate Melaicht were spreading their views freely about what the foundations of a new understanding of Christianity should be. In 1521, Melankhtom clearly and simply set forth the new teaching in a special work; in 1522, Luther published his translation of the New Testament. The new doctrine in many ways echoed the views of the predecessors of the Reformation. While rejecting a number of Catholic doctrinal provisions, Luther also rejected general Christian provisions.
As a basis for innovations, he took the conviction that a weak sinful person cannot achieve justification and salvation on his own. He is justified and saved, he is only by faith in the Redeemer, which is the gift of God, and personal communion with him. Luther rejected everything that is intermediate in the cause of human salvation: the church, the sacred hierarchy, and a series of sacraments.
In his concept of Christianity, there was no place for heavenly mediators - saints, their relics and the worship of icons. He also rejected Sacred Tradition, recognizing only Sacred Scripture, which he entrusted to interpret each believer personally. Thus, in the work of salvation, Luther placed between God and man only personal faith in the ability of each Christian to interpret and explain Scripture for himself. From the traditional triad "man - church - God" he removed the church as a link between believers and the Absolute. Another significant figure in the formation and development of Protestantism was John Calvin. He was born in 1509 into a wealthy bourgeois family in Noyon, in northern France. At the age of fourteen he was sent to study in the city of Bourges.
After the death of his father (1531), the future reformer became interested in the humanities, the study of which II led him eventually to the Protestant camp. By 1534, Calvin was already becoming a consistent reformer. In 1536, his work "Instructions in the Christian Faith" went out of print, which was repeatedly reprinted and supplemented, and eventually turned into a generalized presentation of the entire dogmatic and ecclesiastical teaching of Calvinism. There is still little original content in this work. The author pursued the goal - to systematize the sum of already defined Protestant ideas. Not a man with his sufferings and doubts occupied Calvin, but the restoration of the true concept of God, belittled by papism. To this main theme was added the doctrine of predestination, developed in subsequent editions.
The idea of the unconditional domination of the will of God, which chooses people only as its instruments, excludes the idea and even the very idea of the possibility of a person’s free choice of a decision, of his merits in earthly affairs. The concept of predestination that follows from this was developed by Blessed Augustine and was more or less shared by all the reformers of the 16th century, but none of them went so far in substantiating, formulating this principle as Calvin. According to his teaching, those destined for eternal salvation constitute a small group, chosen by the incomprehensible decision of God, regardless of their merit. On the other hand, no effort can save those who are condemned to eternal death. Both good and evil deeds of people are predestined by God, but this does not in the least remove guilt from a person: any untruth, insult to the name of God entails severe punishment.
There is another side to Calvin's teaching. A person does not have the right to seek out what is decided about him in heaven, he must rely on his belonging to the chosen ones if he follows the path indicated by God. The complete submission of the will of man to divine plans should give rise in him to the consciousness of the rightness and strength to resist the authorities of this world when they act against the Lord's will.
In the teachings of Calvin, Protestantism takes on a dry appearance. He leaves no room for imagination anywhere: everywhere is strict logical reasoning and reference to the text of Scripture. Calvin defined the church as any association of people in which the preaching of God is heard and the sacraments (baptism and communion) are performed. Spiritual authority is placed high enough by him, he demands the excommunication of any guilty person from the church, if many Protestants have abandoned him. In the doctrine of communion, he explained that bread and wine are only signs of our spiritual communion with the Body and Blood of Christ (Catholics and Orthodox consider bread and wine as the Blood and Body of Christ), but in reality only the chosen one, blessed with true faith, eats them. "Instruction in the Christian Faith" immediately made Calvin famous as one of the greatest theologians of the era. Thanks to his personal qualities, Protestantism (Calvinism) from the very beginning took a prominent place in the world. In Geneva, where the popular reformer lived, his admirers flocked from all over Europe, the future fighters against Catholicism went to study. More mature men also asked him for advice: Luther, Melankhgon, Sleydan, Hetman and many others. Calvin responded to all the significant questions that arose in connection with the pan-European Reformation.
For more than 20 years he gave theological lectures, commented on individual books of the Bible and analyzed them in detail in successive sermons. Calvin appears before me in two forms - a learned theologian-theorist and organizer and politician. In his reforming activities, Calvin went very far: he removed from the church everything that reminded of Catholicism - icons, crosses, thrones, etc. Even church music and church decorations were canceled. The divine service itself was limited only to preaching, reading prayers and singing psalms, ritualism was canceled. The sacrament of baptism was performed by sprinkling water without the sign of the cross, the sacrament of communion - in the form of breaking bread in turn by each of those present (and, moreover, sitting).
Only these two sacraments were preserved by Calvin in church rites. Rejecting the church hierarchy, he replaced it with teachers and preachers, establishing the position of elders to oversee the morality of each member of the community and deacons to manage charitable institutions. The election of all these officials, Calvin did not leave to the secular authorities, as Luther did, but to the congregations. The reform movement in Switzerland began somewhat later than in Germany, and independently of it. Here Ulrich Zwingli became an ardent champion of reform. . He was a priest in the small town of Einsiedeln near Zurich. In 1519, at the invitation of believers, he moved to Zurich, where he was engaged in preaching in the cathedral. Zwingli urged that in practical religion one should be guided only by Holy Scripture.
IN 1520 d. The Zurich Council passed a decision which recommended that the preachers adhere strictly to the gospel teaching.
IN 1522 Mr. Zwingli, with the support of supporters, formed his own religious community.
IN 1523 The head of the new community twice spoke at religious debates in Zurich, where, in the presence of many priests, he actively defended his teaching, set forth in 67 theses. After these disputes, the majority of Zurichians voted for the support of the Reformation.
IN 1524-25 y.y. the native language was introduced into the worship of Switzerland, icons were removed from churches and churches, monasteries were turned into educational and charitable institutions.
IN 1531 Zwingli died in one clash between Catholics and reformers. The Catholics desecrated the reformer's corpse and then burned it.
At this time, in Germany, along with the burghers, the popular Reformation noticeably intensified, putting forward extremely radical social demands, the author of which was its leader, Thomas Müntzer. . He started as a follower of Luther, but soon became the main ideologist of the "People's Reformation", the recognized leader of the peasants and the urban lower classes. His merit consisted in the fact that in his views he expressed the attitude of the masses of the people, who openly opposed feudal oppression. In religious ideology, Müntzer adhered to the formula of "justification by faith." He understood earthly vocation as a decisive struggle of the chosen zealots of God, called to create a new just world where goodness and altruism would triumph. However, the peasant war in Germany failed, and the radical views of its leader and ideologist gradually changed to moderate ones.
In England, the Reformation took on a special form. One of the reasons for reforming this church was a quarrel between Pope Clement VII and the English king. Henry VIII (1509-1547), after which the English parliament in 1533 passed a law on the religious independence of England from the Pope and approved the supreme rights in church affairs for the king. In 1534, Henry VIII declared himself the head of the English Church and soon issued, in the name of Parliament, a statement of faith in ten parts, where the influence of Luther's ideas is noticeable. Under Edward VII (1547-1553) these ten points were revised, and in 1551 a statement of faith was published, consisting of 42 members of the English Confession. This was the beginning of the Anglican Episcopal Church.
For a more in-depth acquaintance with Protestantism, we need to consider at least in general terms the main features of the dogma and cult of Protestants.
Fundamentals of Doctrine
The main differences between Protestantism and Orthodoxy and Catholicism relate to the following provisions:
Ø Church in matters of faith and church organization,
Ø a peculiar approach to understanding the doctrine of salvation;
Ø refusal to venerate saints;
Ø rejection of the sacrament of the priesthood;
Ø originality of understanding and practice of the sacrament;
Ø features of baptism and chrismation;
Ø rejection of the sacrament of repentance;
Ø refusal to venerate the cross, icons and holy relics;
Ø rejection of the church hierarchy;
Ø Refusal to pray for the dead.
Protestantism was a reaction of believers to the abuses of the Roman Church, which were expressed in the claims of the clergy to the true understanding of the Word of God and the interpretation of Holy Scripture and the inclusion of these judgments in the Holy Tradition.
The representatives of the Reformation considered the question of Tradition as a purely human addition, which has nothing to do with the Scriptures of the Christians. Luther and Calvin proclaimed the Word of God as the only source and authority for the salvation of believers, in matters of faith and church organization. Thus, Protestantism rejected the authority of Holy Tradition, sanctioned by the teachers of the Church, its fathers, the decisions of the Councils, and left for the believers the opportunity for everyone, based on their own experience, to interpret and understand Holy Scripture. Thus, the Lutheran Catechism says that "from the Holy Scripture alone we can learn what to believe and how we should live." Having rejected Tradition, Protestantism to some extent fell into conflict with its own teaching, since instead of Church Tradition, it raised Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon and their works on a pedestal. Having renounced church tradition, the Protestant had to renounce its bearers as well.
Therefore, during the Reformation, the church hierarchy and sacraments were abolished, which elevated representatives of the church to different levels of this hierarchy.
The doctrine of salvation
Considering the doctrine of salvation, the Protestants rejected the position of Catholic and Orthodox theologians that the salvation of man is based on faith and good works, arguing that only faith alone is sufficient for salvation.
"A person is completely passive about his conversion, he does nothing at all, but only endures what God does with him." Salvation is accomplished by God Himself, not by the works of man, but by faith alone, the possession of which depends wholly on God alone; He gives faith according to his will, and this faith is the only way of salvation; it makes a man righteous. By faith, a person draws near, communes with God and, for the sake of Christ, receives from him saving grace.
Protestantism ignores the Catholic and Orthodox view of the church's participation in the work of salvation, which is that the believer can receive salvation only in the church and only through it.
The doctrine of the church
Rejecting the doctrine of Tradition and salvation, Protestantism also simplified the understanding of the role of the church in the life of man and society. Struggling with the dominance of the Catholic Church, the reformers rejected the church hierarchy that had historically developed in Christianity. The main task that was carried out in the course of reforming the church was to simplify and reduce the influence of the Catholic Church on the life of society, returning to the original sources of early Christianity.
Protestantism excluded: the worship of saints, icons and holy relics. The spiritual priesthood, according to Protestants, is not the lot of the elect, but belongs to all Christians. “All of us,” Luther taught, “are priests, that is, we are the children of Christ, the High Priest. We do not need, therefore, any other priest but Christ, since each of us entrusted the appointment from God himself ... All we are made priests through baptism."
Every believer can preach the Word of God and perform the sacraments in the church.
Protestantism rejected the system of church hierarchy, replacing it with a "bourgeois-democratic organization" with an appropriate system of subordination that meets the needs of the new society. A free burgher should have freedom in resolving religious issues, which was carried out during the reformation of the church.
Sacraments
Protestantism recognizes two sacraments - baptism and communion (eucharist).
Main currents in Protestantism
Lutheranism
This is one of the main Christian denominations founded by Luther. The main point of Luther's theological system is the doctrine of Holy Scripture as the only legitimate and completely sufficient source of doctrine, which every believer has the right to interpret at his own discretion, calling for help through the prayer of the Holy Spirit (other Christian doctrines recognize this function only for representatives of the church hierarchy).
The foundations of the Lutheran doctrine were outlined by Luther in 1520 in the so-called work "A summary of the 10 commandments of faith and Our Lord." The Church, according to Luther's teaching, is an invisible society of saints, justified and regenerated.
Lutheranism denies the church hierarchy and the sacrament of the priesthood. Luther taught that all believing Christians are priests, therefore every Christian, as a temple of the Divine, has the right to teach and perform the sacraments. In his opinion, there are no superiors over Christians, except for one - Jesus Christ. Of the seven church sacraments, Lutherans recognize only two - baptism and communion. Recognizing no mediators other than Christ, they reject the worship of saints, the veneration of holy relics and icons. The theoretical foundation of the Lutheran Church is the Bible, as well as the Augsburg Confession (1530), the Book of Concord (1580), Luther's catechisms. In addition, Lutherans profess the Apostolic and Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creeds. Having discarded the church hierarchy, the Lutherans retained the episcopate and a special ritual of initiation. Having abolished the icons, they preserved the robes of the clergy, the altar, and the crucifix in the church.
Calvinism.
This direction in Protestantism got its name from the name of the leader of the Reformation, John Calvin.
During the formation and strengthening of the reform movement in Europe (mid-16th century), the Catholic Church actively opposed it, organizing a strong reaction. In view of the imminent danger, the Protestants had to unite the efforts of the reformers of individual countries, embrace the entire West with their propaganda, clearly define church forms and unite for the struggle. The execution of these tasks was entrusted to the Frenchman Calvin. Calvinists demanded unconditional and exact adherence to the Bible from believers, the exclusion of external church symbols from cult practice. The development and formation of a new Christian ideology in the confrontation with the Catholic reaction was reflected in the organizational forms of the Calvinist church. Under these conditions, the elders receive strong authority, individual communities are woven into alliances.
Calvinists suggest a theory of resistance to impious and every tyrannical power and at the same time speak of a God-fortified contract between the people and the king.
Calvinist XVI-XVII centuries. He was a sharp type of person, deeply confident in the correctness of his teaching, hostile to the temptations of life and pleasures, outwardly simple, always with prayer or pious speech. In addition to Switzerland, Calvinism spread in Germany (the Reformed Church), France (the Huguenots), Scotland and England (the Puritans), Poland and the territory of our republic.
Characteristic features of Calvinism that distinguish it from other Christian denominations:
The doctrine of the unconditional predestination of the fate of man
Neither faith nor deeds can change fate during life and after death, since it is determined by the divine will and is a mystery.
The Doctrine of Communion (Eucharist)
According to which bread and wine are only visible signs, symbols of the body and blood of Christ; and on the other hand, it is recognized that the believer actually partakes in the body and blood of Christ. In this religious movement, the Bible is considered the only source of doctrine.
Anglican Church
Anglicanism is an amalgamation of Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism. The history of the English church began with the desire of the English crown to get rid of the influence of the papacy. Even several centuries before the Reformation, opposition to the ecclesiastical dominion of Rome was gradually brewing in England. This opposition grew on national and economic grounds: the British resented the constant interference of the Bishop of Rome in the internal affairs of the country, the excessive pretensions of the Popes to manage purely secular, political affairs, the excessive monetary extortions and incomes of the clergy, and the debauchery of the clergy. Along with the political and economic opposition, the religious one also grew, on the basis of the deviation of the Roman church from the apostolic tradition, both in the doctrine of faith and in church administration and life.
The most popular spokesman for this opposition was Wyclef (1324-1384). Emancipatory church ideas again flooded into England only in the 16th century, now from the continent, in the era of Luther. The reason for the transformation of the Roman Church in England was the divorce process of King Henry VIII (1509-1547) with Queen Catherine and his marriage to Anne Boleyn. The pope did not allow the divorce of Henry VIII, fearing to anger the German emperor Charles V, whose wife of the king, Catherine of Aragon, was an aunt.
With the energetic support of the nation, Henry VIII declares non-recognition of the authority of the Pope in the territory of the English kingdom. But, having rejected the authority of the Roman throne, the king and his entourage defended their own interests, and the development of events with the participation of the people required the removal of the very principles on which papal power rested and the creation of forms of religious life. In 1536, the King of England, in the name of Parliament, promulgated the ten articles of the creed as a symbolic book of the Church of England. This document was intended to reconcile Catholics and Protestants, since by this time the country was filled with continental reformists, and the dispute between the supporters of the Reformation and the Latins flared up more and more. Protestants demanded not only a final break with Rome, but also an accelerated reform of the church.
The symbolic book of the Anglican Church (in ten terms) proposed the following innovations:
Ø Of the seven sacraments, leave only three: baptism, repentance, communion. (Moreover, in repentance, unlike the Lutherans, oral confession was preserved, and in communion, the belief in the transubstantiation of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ was not abolished;
Ø establish a new form of appointment of bishops;
Ø accept the doctrine of the justification of a person by faith, but with the recognition of the need to do good deeds for salvation);
Ø abolish the veneration of icons, but keep icons in temples as arousing piety;
Ø recognize the idea of purgatory as true, but abolish indulgences as blasphemy;
Ø Allow clergy to serve in traditional church attire.
But even after that, disputes between Catholics and reformers on issues of religion not only did not stop, but flared up with renewed vigor. In 1548, with the accession to the royal throne of Edward VI, the "Book of Common Prayer" was published, which outlined the main provisions of worship according to the new rules, and in 1552 the new confession of faith itself was published already in 42 members. The publication of the "Book of Common Prayer" in 42 members of the denomination inspired strong Catholic opposition and a massive uprising in the country. In 1555-1558. bloody clashes between Catholics and Protestants did not stop. Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603), trying to reconcile the warring parties, chose a middle option between the demands of extreme Protestants and the harassment of Catholics. To do this, she demanded a revision of the Book of Common Prayer, as well as the contents of the 42 members of the new faith. This procedure was completed only in 1571, when the parliament approved a new religion already in 39 members. As a result, English Christians received a fusion of Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism, with a pronounced anti-papal tendency. The doctrine of the Church of England, set out in 39 articles, for both clergy and laity, contains:
Ø Dogmas about God in three persons, about the Son of God;
Ø a position that rejects superfluous deeds, purgatory and indulgences, orders to conduct worship in the native language;
Ø obligatory celibacy of the clergy was abolished; the supremacy of the Pope of Rome is not recognized in anything;
Ø position on the procession of the Holy Spirit "and from the Son";
Ø explanation of the doctrine of original sin, of justification by faith, of the fallibility of the decisions of the Ecumenical Councils;
Ø about the recognition of the Eastern Church as having fallen into error, the non-recognition of the holiness of icons, relics, the rite of invoking saints;
Ø presentation of the Protestant attitude to the sacraments;
Ø clarification of new views on the hierarchy, the number of sacraments, communion;
Ø an indication of the recognition of the supremacy of the king in state and spiritual life.
Orthodoxy
Russian Orthodox Church
The Orthodox (Orthodox) Church is one of the branches of Christianity that took shape in the 11th century as a result of the division of churches.
Orthodoxy arose on the territory of the Byzantine Empire. Initially, it did not have a church center, since the church power of Byzantium was in the hands of four patriarchs: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. As the Byzantine Empire collapsed, each of the ruling patriarchs headed an independent (autocephalous) Orthodox Church. Subsequently, autocephalous and autonomous churches arose in other countries, mainly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The confessional basis of Orthodoxy is made up of Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition.
The basic principles of Orthodoxy are set forth in the 12 points of the creed adopted at the first two ecumenical councils in Nicaea and Constantinople. The most important postulates of Orthodox doctrine are the dogmas of the trinity of God, the incarnation, redemption, resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ. It is believed that dogmas are not subject to change and clarification, not only in content, but also in form.
Orthodoxy is characterized by a complex, elaborate cult. The worship service is longer than in other Christian denominations, and includes a large number of rituals.
The main service in Orthodoxy is the liturgy. The main holiday is Easter. Divine services are conducted in national languages; some confessions also use dead languages, for example, in the Russian Orthodox Church - Church Slavonic. The clergy in Orthodoxy is divided into white (married parish priests) and black (monastics who take a vow of celibacy). There are male and female monasteries. Only a monk can become a bishop.
Currently, there are 15 autocephalous churches in Orthodoxy: Albanian,
Alexandria,
american,
Antioch,
Bulgarian,
Georgian,
Jerusalem,
Cypriot,
Constantinople,
Polish,
Romanian,
Serbian
Czechoslovakian,
Helladic,
4 autonomous churches: Cretan, Sinai-Finnish, Japanese.
The Russian Orthodox Church has more than a thousand years of history. According to legend, the holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called, with the preaching of the Gospel, stopped at the Kiev mountains and blessed the future city of Kyiv. The spread of Christianity in Russia was facilitated by its proximity to the mighty Christian power - the Byzantine Empire. The south of Russia was consecrated by the activity of the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles brothers Cyril and Methodius, the apostles and enlighteners of the Slavs. In the 9th century, Cyril created the Slavic alphabet (Cyrillic) and, together with his brother, translated into Slavonic books, without which divine services could not be performed: the Gospel, the Psalter and selected services. On the basis of the translations of Cyril and Methodius, the first written and literary language of the Slavs, the so-called Old Church Slavonic, was formed. In 954 Princess Olga of Kyiv was baptized. All this prepared the greatest events in the history of the Russian people - the baptism of Prince Vladimir.
At the end of the summer of 988, Holy Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich gathered all the people of Kiev on the banks of the Dnieper, in whose waters they were baptized by Byzantine priests. This event went down in history as the "baptism of Russia", becoming the beginning of a long process of establishing Christianity in the Russian lands. In 988, under the holy Prince Vladimir I, the Russian Orthodox Church was founded as the Russian Metropolis of the Patriarchate of Constantinople with its center in Kyiv. The Metropolitan who headed the Church was appointed by the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, but in 1051 the Russian Metropolitan Hilarion, the most educated man of his time, a remarkable church writer, was placed on the primatial throne for the first time.
Majestic temples have been built since the 10th century. Since the 11th century, monasteries began to develop in Russia. In 1051, St. Anthony of Pechora brought the traditions of Athos monasticism to Russia, founding the famous Kiev Caves Monastery, which became the center of the religious life of Ancient Russia. The role of monasteries in Russia was enormous. And their main merit to the Russian people - not to mention their purely spiritual role - is that they were the largest centers of education. In the monasteries, in particular, chronicles were kept that brought to our days information about all the significant events in the history of the Russian people. Icon painting and the art of book writing flourished in the monasteries, and theological, historical, and literary works were translated into Russian. The extensive charitable activities of the monastic cloisters contributed to the education of the people in the spirit of mercy and compassion.
In the 12th century, during the period of feudal fragmentation, the Russian Church remained the only bearer of the idea of the unity of the Russian people, which opposed the civil strife of the princes. The Tatar-Mongol invasion - the greatest disaster that struck Russia in the 13th century - did not break the Russian Church. She survived and was the comforter of the people in this difficult test. Spiritually, materially and morally, it contributed to the restoration of the political unity of Russia - the key to future victory over the enslavers. In the difficult years of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and Western influences, the monasteries contributed a lot to the preservation of the national identity and culture of the Russian people. In the 13th century, the foundation of the Pochaev Lavra was laid. This monastery did a lot to establish Orthodoxy in the Western Russian lands. Emperor of Byzantium Michael VIII Palaiologos, back in the 13th century, tried to make an alliance with Rome, subordinating the Byzantine Church to him in exchange for political and military support against the Turks. In 1274, in Lyon, the representatives of the emperor signed a document on an alliance with Rome - the Union of Lyons. The emperor was opposed by his subjects and the Church. Michael was excommunicated from the Church and deprived of a church burial. Only a small number of "latinophones" - adherents of Western culture - converted to Catholicism. After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the department of the metropolis was moved to Vladimir in 1299, and to Moscow in 1325.
The unification of scattered Russian principalities around Moscow began in the 14th century. From the fourteenth to the middle of the fifteenth century, up to 180 new monastic cloisters were founded in Russia. The largest event in the history of ancient Russian monasticism was the founding by St. Sergius of Radonezh of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (about 1334). Here, in this later glorified monastery, the marvelous talent of the icon painter St. Andrei Rublev flourished. The unification of Lithuania with the Catholic Kingdom of Poland, proclaimed in 1385, led to legal, economic and political pressure on Orthodoxy in Western Russia. A significant part of the Orthodox bishops could not resist this pressure.
In 1439, in Florence, under pressure from the emperor and Rome, the Greek hierarchs again signed a document on their submission to the Roman throne. The Union of Florence was the straw that the empire tried to grasp when it was overwhelmed by the Turkish invasion. Historically, this act brought Byzantium no more benefit than a straw for a drowning man. The empire has fallen. Very soon, Constantinople terminated the union. But she gave Rome legal arguments in a dispute with the Orthodox churches, helped create a network of schools for teaching "Eastern Rite Catholics", train cadres of preachers and missionaries, and create preaching literature intended for distribution in the Orthodox environment. The Union of Florence, adopted by Byzantium in 1439, was a heavy blow to the canonical consciousness of Russians. Church canons prescribed obedience to the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople. Religious conscience did not allow the recognition of an apostate patriarch. Unia provided the Russian Church with solid grounds for gaining independence. The Greek Metropolitan of All Russia Isidore, an ardent supporter of the union, was arrested and later fled from Moscow.
The Russians made an extremely painful decision for them: in 1448, not by the Patriarch of Constantinople, as before, but by the Council of Russian Bishops, the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia was appointed. It was the Archbishop of Ryazan, Jonah, who was elected to the metropolitanate as early as 1441, but was not approved by Constantinople at that time. The era of autocephaly began - the complete independence of the Russian Church. In the field of political ideology, this era was marked by the establishment of an original version of the Byzantine theocratic idea (that is, the idea of universal autocracy). In the second half of the 15th century, the Western Russian (Kyiv, Lithuanian) metropolis was formed. In 1458, the Western Russian metropolis was separated from the Moscow metropolis. In addition to the Kiev Metropolis, it includes 9 Orthodox dioceses in Lithuania (Polotsk, Smolensk, Chernihiv, Turov, Lutsk, Vladimir) and Poland (Galician, Peremyshl, Kholm).
Grand Duke IvanIII(1462-1505) married Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog, niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, who was killed by the Turks.
Ivan III was the first in Russia to take the title of autocrat and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle the Russian coat of arms. During the reign of Ivan III, the formula "by the grace of God the king and the great prince" was sometimes added to his title. Under his son Vasily III, the idea of a "third Rome" took on a complete form in the prophecy of the elder of the Pskov Spaso-Eleazarov monastery Philotheus: "...two Romes fell, and the third stands, and the fourth will not happen." Ivan IV Vasilievich, who went down in history as Ivan the Terrible, in 1547, in the image of the Byzantine emperors, was married to the kingdom. It is noteworthy that this ceremony was performed on the advice of Metropolitan Macarius, who placed the royal crown on the head of young Ivan IV. In January 1589, under Tsar Fyodor Ioanovich (son of Ivan the Terrible), Patriarch Jeremiah of Constantinople, who arrived in Moscow, installed Metropolitan Job as the first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. In the future, the growing power of the Russian state also contributed to the growth of the authority of the Autocephalous Russian Church. The Eastern Patriarchs recognized the Russian Patriarch as the fifth place in honor. After the fall of Byzantium (1553) and until now, the Russian Orthodox Church claims to be the "Third Rome". A bright trace was left in the history of the Church by Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky, who created an Orthodox educational center in Ostrog, and his comrade-in-arms, Prince Andrey Kurbsky, who fled to Lithuania under Ivan the Terrible. He urged the local Russian nobility to defend Orthodoxy in every possible way. The 17th century began hard for Russia. Polish-Swedish interventionists invaded the Russian Land from the west. During this time of unrest, the Russian Church, as before, honorably fulfilled its patriotic duty to the people.
The ardent patriot Patriarch Hermogenes (1606-1612) was the spiritual leader of the militia of Minin and Pozharsky. The heroic defense of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra from the Swedes and Poles in 1608-1610 is forever inscribed in the annals of the history of the Russian state and the Russian Church. In the period following the expulsion of the interventionists from Russia, on the personal initiative of Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the Russian Church began to correct liturgical books and rites according to Greek models and establish uniformity in church services. As a result, since 1667, the Russian Orthodox Church separated from the Old Believers and its strong weakening took place. The reform actually affected the elements of ritual: the two-fingered sign of the cross was replaced by a three-fingered one, instead of "Jesus" they began to write "Jesus", along with the eight-pointed cross they began to recognize the four-pointed. The reform provoked a protest from a part of the clergy headed by Archpriest Avvakum. The protest found support among the peasants, boyars, archers. Opponents of the reform were anathematized at the council of 1666-1667 and subjected to severe repression. Fleeing from persecution, supporters of the Old Believers fled to remote places in the North, the Volga region and Siberia. In the years 1675-1695, 37 self-immolations were recorded, during which at least 20 thousand people died. Archpriest Avvakum was burned in a log house along with like-minded people. Many defenders of the old faith took part in the peasant war of S. Razin, the Solovetsky uprising, the uprisings of K. Bulavin and E. Pugachev. In the 17th century, the Kiev-Mohyla Academy became the main center of Orthodox education throughout Russia. Its name included the family nickname of the Metropolitan of Kiev Peter Mohyla, who founded the academy. In the Orthodox publications in Kyiv, Lvov, Vilnius, a strong influence of the Catholic theological language is noticeable. The fact is that with the destruction of the Byzantine Empire, the education system in the Orthodox East also fell into decay. But in the Catholic West, it developed without hindrance, and many of its achievements were borrowed by the Kiev theological school. Its "working" language was Latin, which relied primarily on Latin sources. The experience of the Kiev school and its theologians played a major role in the revival of Orthodox education in Muscovite Russia in the 17th century, when the wounds of the Time of Troubles were healed. In 1687, Patriarch Dionisy of Constantinople and the eastern patriarchs sent a letter approving the transfer of the Kiev Metropolis to Moscow jurisdiction. The reunification of the Kiev Metropolis with the Moscow Patriarchate takes place. The beginning of the 18th century was marked for Russia by the radical reforms of Peter I. The reforms also affected the Russian Church: after the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I delayed the election of a new Primate of the Church, and in 1721 established a collegiate higher church administration in the person of the Holy Governing Synod, which remained the highest church organ for almost two hundred years (1721-1917). The duties of the Primate were temporarily performed by Metropolitan Stefan of Ryazan Yavorsky. Tsar Peter deliberately did not hurry with the appointment of the patriarch, waiting until his absence became habitual. The Holy Synod did not just replace the patriarchal government. This body was directly subordinate to the sovereign.
The Russian state became an empire, but not of the Byzantine type - with two heads, but of the western one - with one head, secular. In the activities of the Synod, whose members were persons of the clergy, a layman participated - the chief prosecutor, the "eyes and ears" of the secular authorities.
In the 18th century, the Church lost almost all of its land holdings, and its property came under state control. The well-being of the hierarchs, especially the members of the Synod, depended on state salaries. The priests were obliged to inform the authorities about everything that could pose a threat to the state system. If this information was received at confession, when the priest stands before God as a witness of a person’s repentance for committed sins, then the confessor had to divulge the secret of confession - to commit what is considered a crime according to church canons.
The increased bureaucratic control, coupled with bureaucratic arbitrariness, turned the clergy into a "terrified class." His authority in society began to decline. In the 18th century, with his fashion for freethinking, there were even convinced atheists among the chief prosecutors. In the 19th century, under the successors of Peter I, the Church became the "Department of the Orthodox Confession". At the same time, a certain mystery accompanies the life of the Russian Church during the Synodal period of its history (1721-1917): having submitted to the new regulations, the Church in its depths did not accept them. This rejection was not expressed in resistance - active or passive (although there was such a thing, and in the 18th century many hierarchs and laity paid with their heads for it).
In opposition to police and bureaucratic pressure, phenomena arose in the Church in which the fullness of inner spiritual freedom was concentrated. Thus, the Russian Church of the 18th century was consecrated by the wise meekness of St. Tikhon of Zadonsk (1724-1783). As a bishop, he was distinguished by absolute disinterestedness, modesty, a special talent for educating the clergy, and rejection of corporal punishment common at that time. Saint Tikhon became famous as a remarkable church writer, educator and philanthropist. He spent the last 16 years of his life in the Zadonsky Monastery "at rest", but in fact - in continuous work, combining prayer with writing, receiving pilgrims and caring for the sick. It was in this era that the revival of a special monastic feat of silent prayer - "intelligent doing" - began. This tradition, which originated in Byzantium and almost disappeared in Russia by the 18th century, was preserved on Athos. From there, it was brought to the lands of Moldova by the Russian monk Paisiy Velichkovsky, later - the archimandrite of the Neamtsky monastery in the Carpathians. Russian
The church paid special attention to the development of spiritual enlightenment and missionary work in the outskirts of the country. Old churches were restored and new ones were built. Russian ecclesiastical scholars have done a lot for the development of such sciences as history, linguistics, and oriental studies. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the quiet glory of the Monk Seraphim, the wonderworker of Sarov (1753-1833). His ingenuous conversations with pilgrims are an example of enlightenment that opened up an understanding of the Orthodox faith. The 19th century is the heyday of eldership. There is no rank of elder (teacher and mentor) in the church hierarchy. An elder cannot be appointed, it is impossible to pretend to be; the elder must be recognized by the church people. Few received such recognition. The elders of Optina Pustyn gained special fame, which became a place of real pilgrimage for the common people and the intelligentsia. The elders were mostly monks, representatives of the black clergy. However, elders from the white, married clergy are also known: for example, the Moscow priest Alexy Mechev (died in 1923).
The synodal period in the history of the Russian Church is also the time of the emergence of a whole network of theological educational institutions, including academies. In the 19th century, their professorship could do honor to any university and included famous scientists. In the same period, in a society that was once ideologically almost unified, various ideological currents appeared, many of which were openly anti-church. The development of capitalism in Russia and changes in living conditions destroyed the usual daily rituals associated with the historical forms of Orthodoxy. The close connection between the state and the Church in Russia has led to the fact that the prevailing social, administrative and even economic structures for the most part seem to merge in the minds of people with Orthodoxy.
Therefore, the defense of these structures and relationships was perceived by many as an upholding of the faith, and rejection of them was often associated with a rejection of the Church. Its protection by the state was often carried out in rude and clumsy ways, which only harmed Orthodoxy in the eyes of non-Christians and people who were not sufficiently familiar with it.
For example, for a long time, civil servants were required to submit to their superiors a certificate from a priest stating that they fasted and received Orthodox sacraments at the set time; there were laws that threatened punishment for the conversion of the Orthodox to another faith, for example, to the Old Believers. Russian saints of the 19th century - Saints Ignatius Brianchaninov, Theophan the Recluse, and others - wrote about the troubles in the Russian Church, about the formalism that was fatal to her in observing the church charter, about the corrupting influence of worldly interests and moods on her life. . Nevertheless, the authorities stubbornly considered the convening of the Local Council and the restoration of the patriarchate in the Russian Church to be untimely. The cathedral was held only after the February Revolution of 1917 (it opened only in August 1917 and lasted until September 1918).
The council adopted decisions on the most important issues of church life. The patriarchate was restored in the Russian Church, and Saint Tikhon (1865-1925) was elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. They allowed the election of bishops by the clergy and laity of the diocese, the use of not only Church Slavonic, but Russian and other languages in worship. The rights of parishes have expanded; outlined measures to strengthen the missionary activity of the Church, to expand the participation of the laity in it. The atheistic state launched a systematic struggle against the Church. The 1918 decree on the separation of church and state deprived the Church of the right of a legal entity and the right to own property. At the same time, the Church underwent a series of schisms (the largest of which, the "Karlovatian", still exists).
For the Bolsheviks, the Russian Orthodox Church was a priori an ideological adversary. During the years of the civil war, in the 20-30s. the murders of clerics were massive. A crushing blow to the Church was dealt in the early 1920s. The church was accused of refusing to give away church valuables in order to save people in the Volga region suffering from hunger. In fact, the Church did not refuse such assistance. She protested only against the looting of temples and against the desecration of shrines. Trials of the clergy began everywhere. During this campaign, a large number of hierarchs were condemned, including Patriarch Tikhon. Saint Benjamin, Metropolitan of Petrograd, and many others were executed. In the 20s. the Church was also attacked from within. Some of the priests hastened to abandon the patriarchal Church, accepted Soviet power and in 1921-1922. started the renewal movement. Activists of the renovationist movement announced the creation of a "Living Church", which sympathizes with the ideals of the Soviet government and is called upon to renew religious life. Some Renovationists really sincerely wanted to believe that evangelical ideals could be achieved through a social revolution.
The leader of the movement, Alexander Vvedensky, tried to lull his vigilance with compliments to the new government in order to fight against godlessness. But the authorities were not inclined to put up with "religious propaganda." The time for disputes passed quickly, and the Renovationists eventually began to realize that they were being used as a weapon in the fight against the Church. Crouching before the authorities, the Renovationists emphasized their readiness to "serve the people." For the sake of "drawing closer to the people," arbitrary changes were made to the order of worship, and the church charter was grossly violated. Even those changes in the life of the Church, which were blessed by the Local Council of 1917-1918, took on crudely caricatured forms. Of course, over the two millennia of the existence of the Church, the rite has changed a lot, but innovation has never been an end in itself. Their task was to more fully reveal the unchanging faith of the Church and to convey her teachings. Innovations were more or less successful. But the renovationism of the 20-30s. became such a trial and temptation for the Church that any changes, even those based on tradition, have since become associated with it in the minds of many believers.
The priests, who did not accept the "renovationism" movement and did not have time to emigrate, went underground and formed the so-called "catacomb church".
In 1923, at the local council of the Renovationist communities, programs for the radical renewal of the ROC were considered. At the council, Patriarch Tikhon was deposed and full support for the Soviet government was proclaimed. Patriarch Tikhon anathematized the Renovationists. In 1924, the Supreme Church Council was transformed into a Renovationist Synod headed by the Metropolitan. Part of the clergy and believers who found themselves in exile formed the so-called "Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia" (ROCOR). Until 1928, ROCOR maintained close contacts with the ROC, but these contacts were subsequently discontinued. In the Declaration of 1927, the ROC declared its loyalty to the Soviet government in civil terms, without any concessions in the field of faith. But this did not stop the repression. In the 1930s the church was on the verge of extinction. By 1940, only a few dozen functioning churches remained on the territory of the USSR, while on the eve of October 1917, about 80,000 Orthodox churches operated in Russia. Many of them were destroyed, including the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, a monument of gratitude to God for deliverance from the enemy and victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. If in 1917 the Orthodox clergy numbered about 300 thousand people, but by 1940 there were most of the priests were no longer alive. Outstanding cultural figures, the best theologians of Russia, either died in dungeons and camps, like the philosopher and theologian Priest Pavel Florensky, or ended up abroad, like S. L. Frank, N. A. Berdyaev.
The authorities of the Soviet Union changed their attitude towards the Church only when the existence of the country was threatened. Stalin mobilized all national reserves for defense, including the Russian Orthodox Church as the people's moral force. In a short time, about 10 thousand new parishes were opened. The clergy, including bishops, were released from the camps. The Russian Church did not limit itself only to spiritual support for the defense of the Fatherland in danger - it also provided material assistance, up to uniforms for the army, funding for the Dimitry Donskoy tank column and the Alexander Nevsky squadron. In 1943 the Russian Church again found a patriarch. They became Metropolitan Sergius (Stargorodsky) (1867-1944). The rapprochement of the state and the Church in "patriotic unity" was the reception by Stalin on September 4, 1943 of the Patriarchal Locum Tenens Metropolitan Sergius and Metropolitans Alexy (Simansky) and Nikolai (Yarushevich). From this historical moment, "thaw" in relations between the Church and the state began, however, the Church was constantly under state control, and any attempts to expand its activities outside the walls of the temple met with a firm rebuff, including administrative sanctions. The activity of Patriarch Sergius is difficult to characterize unambiguously. On the one hand, his loyalty to the Soviet authorities led to the fact that the authorities practically did not consider the Church, on the other hand, it was precisely such a policy of the patriarch that allowed not only to preserve the Church, but also made it possible for her subsequent revival. The position of the Russian Orthodox Church in the period of the so-called "Khrushchev thaw" (in the early 1960s), when thousands of churches throughout the Soviet Union were closed for the sake of ideological guidelines.
At the Local Council of 1971, reconciliation with the Old Believers took place.
The celebration of the Millennium of the Baptism of Russia in 1988 marked the decline of the state-atheistic system, gave a new impetus to church-state relations, forced those in power to start a dialogue with the Church and build relationships with her on the principles of recognizing her enormous historical role in the fate of the Fatherland and her contribution to the formation of moral the foundations of the nation. A genuine return of the people to the Father's house began - people were drawn to Christ and His Holy Church. Archpastors, shepherds and laity began to work zealously to recreate a full-blooded church life. At the same time, the absolute majority of clergymen and believers showed extraordinary wisdom, endurance, steadfastness in faith, devotion to Holy Orthodoxy, in spite of the difficulties that the revival was associated with, nor the attempts of external forces to split the Church, shake her unity, deprive her of her inner freedom, subjugate worldly interests. The desire to include the Russian Orthodox Church within the framework of the Russian Federation and the national diasporas associated with it has so far proved futile. However, the consequences of persecution were very, very serious. It was necessary not only to restore thousands of temples and hundreds of monasteries from the ruins, but also to revive the traditions of educational, educational, charitable, missionary, church and public service. Metropolitan Alexy of Leningrad and Novgorod, who was elected by the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church to the primatial see, widowed after the death of His Holiness Patriarch Pimen, was destined to lead the church revival in these difficult conditions. On June 10, 1990, the enthronement of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Russia took place. Under his First Hierarchal omophorion, the Russian Orthodox Church undertook the hardest work to restore what had been lost during the years of persecution. The Bishops' Councils of the Russian Orthodox Church became peculiar milestones on this difficult path, at which urgent problems of church revival were freely discussed, decisions were made on canonical, disciplinary and doctrinal issues.
The Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church on March 31 - April 5, 1992, held in Moscow, adopted a number of important decisions regarding church life in Ukraine and the canonical position of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. At the same Council, the glorification was laid in the guise of the holy New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia, who suffered for Christ and His Church during the years of persecution. In addition, the Council adopted an appeal in which it outlined the position of the Russian Orthodox Church on issues that worried society in the countries in which its flock lives. On June 11, 1992, the Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church was convened on an extraordinary basis to consider the case on charges against Metropolitan Philaret of Kiev in anti-church activities that contributed to the split of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. In a special "Judicial act" the Council decided to depose Metropolitan Filaret (Denisenko) of Kiev for grave moral and canonical crimes and causing a schism in the Church. church life, adopted a special definition "On the relationship of the Church with the state and secular society in the canonical territory of the Moscow Patriarchate at the present time", in which he confirmed the "unpreferability" for the Church of any state system, political doctrine, and so on, the inadmissibility of support by the Church of the Completeness of political parties, and banned clerics from running for office in local or federal elections.
The Council also decided to start developing a comprehensive concept that reflects a general church view on issues of church-state relations and the problems of modern society as a whole. The Council especially noted the need to revive the missionary service of the Church and decided to develop a concept for the revival of the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church on February 18-23, 1997 continued its work on the general church glorification of the New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia. In addition, the topics discussed at the 1994 Bishops' Council, which outlined the most important tasks and trends in church life, were developed in the council reports and discussions. In particular, the Council confirmed the inviolability of the Church's position on the issue of the inadmissibility of the participation of the Church and its ministers in the political struggle.
In addition, the prospects for the participation of the Russian Orthodox Church in international Christian organizations, the problems of missionary and social service to the Church, the threats of proselytizing activities of heterodox and heterodox religious associations were discussed. The Anniversary Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church met on August 13-16, 2000 in the Hall of Church Councils of the reconstructed Cathedral of Christ the Savior. The meetings of the Council, which ended with the solemn consecration of the Temple, entered the circle of celebrations dedicated to the great Jubilee - the 2000th anniversary of the Coming into the world of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. The Council became a unique phenomenon in the life of the Russian Orthodox Church in terms of the number and significance of the decisions it made. According to the report of Metropolitan Juvenaly of Krutitsy and Kolomna, chairman of the Synodal Commission for the canonization of saints, it was decided to glorify for general church veneration in the face of the saints of the Cathedral of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia of the 20th century, their names are not known, but led by God. The Council examined materials on 814 ascetics whose names are known, and on 46 ascetics whose names could not be established, but about whom it is reliably known that they suffered for the faith of Christ.
The names of 230 previously glorified locally venerated saints were also included in the Council of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia for general church veneration. Having considered the issue of canonization of the Royal Family of Nicholas II, the members of the Council decided to glorify Emperor Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra and their children: Alexy, Olga, Tatiana, Mary and Anastasia as martyrs in the Cathedral of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia. The council adopted a decision on the general church glorification of the ascetics of faith and piety of other times, whose feat of faith was different from that of the new martyrs and confessors.
The members of the Council adopted the Basic principles of the attitude of the Russian Orthodox Church towards heterodoxy, prepared by the Synodal Theological Commission under the leadership of Metropolitan Filaret of Minsk and Slutsk. This document became a guide for the clergy and laity of the Russian Orthodox Church in their contacts with the non-Orthodox. Of particular importance is the adoption by the Council of the Foundations of the social concept of the Russian Orthodox Church. This document, prepared by the Synodal Working Group under the leadership of Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad, and being the first document of its kind in the Orthodox world, sets out the basic provisions of the Church's teaching on issues of church-state relations and on a number of contemporary socially significant problems.
In addition, the Council adopted a new Statute of the Russian Orthodox Church, prepared by the Synodal Commission for Amending the Statute on the Administration of the Russian Orthodox Church under the leadership of Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad. The Church is guided by this Charter at the present time. The Council adopted the Epistle to the God-loving pastors, honest monastics and all the faithful children of the Russian Orthodox Church, the Determination on the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, the Determination on the position of the Orthodox Church in Estonia and the Determination on the issues of the internal life and external activities of the Russian Orthodox Church. Today, Orthodoxy unites people of different upbringing and education, representatives of different cultures and nationalities, adherents of different ideologies and political doctrines. Disagreements may arise between theologians and individual groups of believers on issues of dogma, the inner life of the Church, and attitudes towards other religions. The world sometimes intrudes into the spiritual life of the Church, imposing its priorities and values on it, and it also happens that the behavior of some Orthodox believers becomes a noticeable obstacle on people's path to Orthodoxy.
History testifies that the Orthodox Church survived in the most difficult historical situations. Legal and economic conditions, ideological doctrines could favor or hinder her spiritual life and public service.
But these conditions have never been entirely favorable and have never had a decisive influence on Orthodoxy. The content of the inner life of the Church was primarily determined by her faith and teaching. Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Russia said: "The Church sees its mission not in the social structure... but in the only ministry commanded by God to save human souls. It fulfilled its mission at all times, under any state formations."
Conclusion
I would like to note that an important role in the formation of Christianity was played by the democratic nature of early Christianity, which manifested itself primarily in the organization of communities of believers. A brief review of the Christian sacraments showed me that through them the church is trying to control the life of its wards and to educate them in certain stereotypes of behavior, to form religious ideals and values.
Christianity tries to keep the believer in the bosom of the church from birth to death. Having barely had time to be born, a person must be accepted into the bosom of the church, and already two sacraments are approaching the cradle of an infant (baptism and chrismation), as if notifying that he needs not only parents in the body, but also parents in spirit, that he lives not only for the world, but also for Christ. But a person grows, develops, his passions develop along with him, he makes mistakes, abuses, i.e. sins. And then the church offers him the opportunity to once again take the true path through repentance, to wash away the sins committed. Blessing the marital union with the sacrament of marriage, the church does not leave people without its special attention here. She does not leave the believer without her spiritual blessing even before death, having cured the soul and body of the afflicted through unction (unction).
I believe that Christianity arose at the crossroads of epochs and cultures, was able to combine the achievements of the spiritual and practical activities of mankind and adapt them to the needs of a new civilization, leaving behind the threshold the decrepit clothes of tribal and national religious ideas and beliefs.
Over time, Christianity was divided, but still it is strong and everyone chooses his own division. But I want to note that Orthodoxy for me still remains the most native faith. Russian Saints helped Russia in many ways in troubles and wars, praying for our people and rulers.
For example - Saint Metropolitan Alexy (1354-1378) brought up the holy noble prince Dmitry Donskoy. By the power of his authority, he helped the Moscow prince in putting an end to feudal unrest and maintaining state unity. The great ascetic of the Russian Church, St. Sergius of Radonezh, blessed Demetrius of Donskoy for the greatest feat of arms - the Battle of Kulikovo, which served as the beginning of the liberation of Russia from the Mongol yoke, etc.
The Russian Church remained the only bearer of the idea of the unity of the Russian people, which opposed the civil strife of the princes.
Bibliography
1. Klibanov A. I. "Russian Orthodoxy": Politizdat, 1987
2. Oscar Jaeger "World History: Publishing House" Moscow 1999
3. Shchapov Y. N. "The Church in Ancient Russia (Until the end of the XIII century)": Politizdat, 1987
4. Poppe A. "How Russia was baptized. The political background of the baptism of Russia": Moscow. Publishing house of political literature 1988
5. Karamzin N. M. "Traditions of the Ages": Moscow publishing house "Pravda", 1987
6. K.V. Kislyuk, O.N. Kucher "Religious Studies. Christianity."2003
7. M.N. Bessonov "Orthodoxy in Our Days". 1990
8.Bialystok 1992 "Orthodox services and sacraments"
9. "New Orthodox miracles". Moscow "flashes" 1994
10. "Affirmation of Christianity. Separation". Braichevsky M.Yu. 1989
11. "Ancient Russia". Orgish V.P. 1988
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Christianity has existed for more than two thousand years, it arose in the 1st century BC. e. There is no consensus on the exact place of origin of this religion, some researchers are sure that Christianity originated in Palestine, others argue that it happened in Greece.
Palestinian Jews before the 2nd century BC. e. were under foreign domination. But they still managed to achieve economic and political independence, significantly expanding their territory. Independence did not last long, in 63 BC. e. Roman commander Gnei Poltei brought troops into Judea, annexing these territories to the Roman Empire. By the beginning of our era, Palestine completely lost its independence, management began to be carried out by the Roman governor.
The loss of political independence led to the strengthening of the position of radical nationalist Jewish religious groups. Their leaders spread the idea of divine retribution for violations of religious prohibitions, customs and fathers. All groups waged an active struggle against the Roman conquerors. For the most part, the Romans won it, so by the 1st century AD. e. the hope of the coming of the Messiah among the people grew stronger every year. This also proves that the first book of the New Testament, the Apocalypse, is dated precisely to the 1st century AD. The idea of retribution is most strongly manifested in this book.
The ideological foundation laid by Judaism, together with the prevailing historical situation, also contributed to the emergence of Christianity. The Old Testament tradition received a new interpretation, the rethought ideas of Judaism gave the new religion faith in the second coming of Christ.
Ancient philosophical teachings also had a significant impact on the formation of the Christian worldview. The philosophical systems of the Neo-Pythagoreans, Stoics, Plato and Neo-Platonists gave the Christian religion many mental constructions, concepts and even terms that were later reflected in the texts of the New Testament.
The stages of the formation of Christianity
The formation of Christianity took place in the period from the middle of the 1st century to the 5th century AD. In this period, several main stages in the development of Christianity can be distinguished.
Stage of actual eschatology (second half of the 2nd century). At the first stage, the Christian religion can be called Judeo-Christian, since it has not yet completely separated. The arrival during this period was expected literally from day to day, therefore it is called actual eschatology.
During this period, there was no centralized Christian organization, there were no priests. Religious communities of charismatics, preached the doctrine among the people of the didascala, solved technical issues. A little later, bishops appeared - observers, overseers and presbyters - elders.
Adaptation stage (II - early III century). During this period, the moods of Christians change, the doomsday does not happen soon, tense expectation is replaced by adaptation to the existing world order. General eschatology gives way to individual eschatology based on the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The national and social composition of Christian communities is gradually changing. More and more representatives of the educated and wealthy segments of the population of different nations are converting to Christianity, as a result of which the doctrine becomes more tolerant of wealth.
In the same period, Christianity completely separated from Judaism, and there were fewer and fewer Jews among Christians. Jewish rituals are replaced by new ones, religious holidays are filled with new mythological content. Baptism, prayer, communion and other rites borrowed from the religions of different peoples appear in the cult of Christianity. Large church Christian centers begin to form.
The stage of the struggle for dominance in the empire. At the third stage, Christianity is finally established as the state religion. From 305 to 313, Christianity is persecuted and persecuted, the so-called "era of martyrs" passes. Since 313, according to the Milan edict of Emperor Constantine, Christians receive equal rights with pagans and become under the protection of the state. In 391, Emperor Theodosius finally establishes Christianity as the official state religion and forbids paganism. After that, councils begin to be held, at which church dogmas and principles for the further development and strengthening of Christianity are developed and approved.
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The birthplace of Christianity is considered to be Palestine, which at that time (I century AD) was under the rule of the Roman Empire. In the early years of its existence, Christianity was able to significantly expand to a number of other countries and ethnic groups. Already in 301, Christianity acquired the status of the official state religion of Greater Armenia.
The origin of the Christian doctrine was directly connected with Old Testament Judaism. According to Jewish belief, God had to send his son, the messiah, to earth, who would cleanse mankind from sins with his blood. According to the dogma of Christianity, Jesus Christ, a direct descendant of David, became such a person, which was also indicated in Scripture. The emergence of Christianity to some extent brought about a schism in Judaism: the first newly converted Christians were Jews. But a significant part of the Jews could not recognize Jesus as the messiah and thus preserved Judaism as an independent religion.
According to the Gospel (the teaching of the New Testament), after the ascension of Jesus Christ to heaven, his faithful disciples, through the descent of the sacred flame, acquired the opportunity to speak different languages, and set off to spread Christianity in different countries of the world. So, written memos about the activities of the Apostle Peter, Paul and Andrew the First-Called, who preached Christianity on the territory of the future Kievan Rus, have survived to our times.
The difference between Christianity and paganism
Speaking about the birth of Christianity, it should be noted that the first followers of Jesus were subjected to terrifying persecution. Initially, the activities of Christian preachers were received with hostility by the Jewish clergy, who did not accept the teachings of Jesus. Later, after the fall of Jerusalem, the persecution of the Roman pagans began.
Christian doctrine was a complete antipode to paganism, it condemned luxury, polygamy, slavery - everything that was characteristic of a pagan society. But its main difference was faith in one God, monotheism. Naturally, this state of affairs did not suit the Romans.
They took strict measures to stop the activities of Christian preachers: blasphemous executions were applied to them. So it was until 313, when, to everyone's surprise, the Roman emperor Constantine not only stopped the persecution of Christians, but also made Christianity the state religion.
Christianity, like every religion, has its pros and cons. But his appearance, no doubt, raised the world to a higher spiritual level. Christianity preaches the principles of mercy, kindness and love for the world around, which is important for the high mental development of a person.
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Spread of Christianity
The first Christians of Rome gathered in secret places, most often in the catacombs.
In the first centuries after the life and death of Jesus Christ, there were few adherents of his teachings in Rome. However, as the Roman Empire weakened, the traditional state religion less and less met the spiritual needs of the Romans, and there were more and more Christians among them.
Christian communities
Paradoxically, it was precisely thanks to the Roman Empire, with its stability, developed road system and clear social structure, that Christianity became widely spread.
By the end of the II century. Christian communities existed in almost all Roman cities. These were not just associations of fellow believers, but mutual aid unions: in each community there was a cash desk, from which benefits were distributed and common meals were arranged.
Symbolism
Christ and fish, identification marks of the first Christians
Christian communities were interconnected, some of their representatives were in correspondence, supporting each other and jointly developing norms of life behavior.
Gradually, a special Christian symbolism was created. Images of the good shepherd, fish (the Greek word "fish" is formed from the first letters in the phrase "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior"), vines and chrysms, the monogram of the name of Christ, consisting of two initial Greek letters of his name, crossed between themselves.
The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet were often placed along the edges of the monogram.
Persecution of Christians
The main reason for the persecution of supporters of Christianity was their refusal to recognize the cult of the emperor and to participate in state religious ceremonies and rituals.
However, the persecution of Christians was unsystematic and occurred from case to case. For example, in 64, after a devastating fire in Rome, the emperor Nero, in order to divert suspicion from himself, accused Christians of arson, and on this basis many of them were put to a painful death.
The most widespread and cruel were the persecutions of Christians during the reign of Emperor Diocletian, while destroying not only the followers of Christ's teachings, but also their sacred books.
Before the appearance of the first churches, Christians prayed in ordinary homes.
Large rooms were intended for joint prayer and baptism
"Sim win"
There is a legend that on the eve of the battle at the Milvian Bridge, the victory in which brought Constantine the imperial power, he saw a cross with the words “You will conquer this” inscribed on it. In the next, 313
Constantine issued an edict on the free practice of Christianity by the citizens of the Roman Empire, thanks to which it began to turn from a persecuted religion into a dominant one.
State religion
Emperor Theodosius I issued a decree forbidding the worship of pagan gods. Ancient temples were closed, many sanctuaries were plundered, and the fire that burned in the temple of Vesta in Rome was extinguished. Now the pagans were persecuted by the state.
Place, time and historical conditions for the emergence of Christianity.
Historical conditions and geographical limits of the emergence of Christianity. Socio-political (tyrannical nature of the reign of emperors) prerequisites and economic crisis: slave uprisings and enslavement of peoples. Name the most famous historical slave uprising in 74-71. BC. For what reasons did the peoples conquered by Rome turn to religion? Why couldn't existing religions give slaves consolation?
What ideas come to the fore as consolation in early Christianity? What teaching in Christianity supplanted the primary ideas about the end of the world, the Last Judgment and the destruction of injustice, and provided spiritual comfort (heavenly bliss) to the poor and the destitute?
Various views on the authority and reliability of the texts of the Holy Scriptures of scientists, religious scholars: name the directions of these views. List and explain the different points of view on the historicity of Christ scientists of atheistic and materialistic directions.
Name the ancient (non-Christian) texts of the 1st century AD. and their authors, which mention the Messiah Christ (“Jewish Antiquities” by Josephus Flavius, the Jewish Talmud - Chapter IV, “History” by Tacitus, Biography of the Emperor Nero by the writer Suetonius, etc.).
Name the most important Christian shrines that serve as the main evidence of the historicity of Christ for the believing Christian world.
6. Formation of Christian doctrine and rituals. Borrowings from the religions of the ancient world.
Geographical point and historical background of the emergence of Christianity.
To reveal the religious situation in Palestine in the 1st c. n. e .: sects (flows) of the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes (community of Qumranites), their religious views. Explain the reasons for the break of Christians with Judaism and the formation of Christianity as an independent religion. Name a number of elements of the dogma that passed from Judaism to Christianity. What is the dualism of Zoroastrianism and what is it by analogy in the teachings of Christianity. List your own, distinctive dogmas of Christianity (the trinity of God, the Incarnation, redemption, resurrection and ascension of Christ) and explain the essence of each dogma.
To characterize the ancient (ancient Greek philosophy) philosophical systems: Orphics, Pythagoreans, Socratic schools, Platonism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Neoplatonism, Patristics.
Name which of them played an important role in the formation and formation of Christianity.
7. Books of the New Testament: general characteristics, Gospels.
Composition of the New Testament. How many writings are included in the New Testament? Explain the concepts of "canon", "gospel" and "apocrypha".
How did the church treat the apocrypha and into what groups were the apocryphal works divided? What are the names of the first three Gospels and who are their authors? Explain the difference between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.
Name the most significant difference between the synoptics and John, explain why John does not give the genealogy of Jesus, and the story of his birth.
8. Books of the New Testament: Acts and Epistles of the Apostles.
Explain what the content of the book of the Acts of the Apostles is.
How is Christianity depicted in the Acts of the Apostles in relation to Judaism? For what reasons does the apostle Paul give explanations to the Sanhedrin (explain the term "Sanhedrin") regarding his teaching?
To reveal the reasons for the complete break of Christianity with Judaism and the conversion of the Apostle Paul to the Gentiles. What two tendencies fought in early Christianity.
Give an explanation of the concepts: Petrinism (Judeo-Christianity) and Paulinism (linguistic Christianity). The names of these concepts are associated with the names of which apostles and why. Explain why the book of the Epistles of the Apostles is second only to the Gospels. What are the characteristics of the Epistles of the Apostles (expositions of Christian doctrine, morality, ethics, rituals) and why are they considered religious and edifying works?
Why are the Epistles of the Apostles called "open letters"? Explain into what two main parts the church tradition divides the Epistles of the Apostles. Which epistles of the apostles are called catholic (Peter John, James, Jude) and why? What is the name of the apostle, in whose epistles the most important issues of dogma, ethics, and cult are considered. Why is the Apostle Paul called the second founder of Christianity?
14. Books of the New Testament: Apocalypse.
What does "Apocalypse" mean in Greek?
Tell about the main storyline of the Apocalypse. Who is the “beast” in the Apocalypse and with what forces will he fight the decisive battle? Who will be resurrected after the battle of the beast with heavenly angels, led by Christ? Explain the concept of Armageddon (the last and decisive battle) and in what area in the Middle East the event before the Last Judgment will take place.
PERM STATE UNIVERSITY them. A.M. Gorky
1. Introduction
Christianity is the great world religion. In the course of its historical development, it broke up into three large branches:
Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism, each of which, in turn, has directions, currents and churches. Despite the significant differences between the believers of these movements and churches, they are all united by faith in Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who came to Earth, accepted suffering in the name of atonement for human sin and ascended to heaven.
There are over a billion followers of Christianity on Earth. Modern European and American civilization grew up on the basis of Christianity, more than a thousand years have passed since Christianity of its Orthodox variety was established in Russia.
In the social, state and cultural life of our country, Christianity has played and still plays an exceptional role. Without knowledge of the foundations of Christianity, it is impossible to understand the roots of modern civilization, the peculiarities of the histories of many countries of the world, the culture of different eras and peoples, and Russian culture.
You can study Christianity all your life, because. it is a huge rich world, a treasury of wisdom, beauty, a source of deep feelings and experiences.
2. The rise of Christianity
Unlike the early religious systems that took shape during the formation of the ancient centers of civilization in the Middle East, Christianity appeared relatively late, in an already developed society with sharp social, economic and political contradictions. A new religion emerging under such conditions, claiming wide attention and distribution, had to respond to the demands of its time and offer some, albeit illusory, but quite significant in the eyes of millions of people, ways and means of resolving the contradictions tearing apart society, smoothing them, directing them. in a different direction.
The new religion had to just as decisively reject the ethnic narrow-mindedness that characterized early religious systems. This was a necessary condition, because otherwise, it would not be able to capture the minds of people, regardless of their origin and social status.
And, finally, one more thing: the new religion had to be sufficiently intellectually developed and saturated, including everything that the religious systems of the vast Middle East-Mediterranean region that already existed before it had achieved.
Satisfying all these conditions was not easy.
And yet, the challenge of the era, the needs of the time led to the fact that at the turn of our era in the ancient Hellenistic world, systems were already being formed that could respond to this "challenge". Among them, it is worth mentioning Mithraism brought from Persia, which became widespread in the Roman Empire and clearly influenced the subsequent formation of Christianity. Apparently, under favorable conditions, Neoplatonism, which developed on the basis of a religious understanding of the idealistic philosophy of Plato, could grow into such a system.
F. Engels called the Platonist Philo of Alexandria the "father", and the Roman Stoic Seneca the "uncle" of Christianity.
Philo of Alexandria (c. 30/25 BC - 50 AD) was the head of the Jewish-Alexandrian philosophical school. Christianity borrowed from Philo the doctrine of the world spirit and the divine word - the Logos - the mediator between God and man. The formation of the very concept of God did not take place without the influence of the Neoplatonic idea of the “one”, a certain divine essence, which, through “emanation” (outpouring), separates the world mind (the world of ideas), then the world soul, consisting of individual souls of people and angels, and and, finally, the sensual material world, mired in sin.
Lucius Annaeus Sineca (4 b.
BC. - 65 AD) taught his followers to be guided not by passions, but by reason, not to strive for external honors, to submit to fate, that is, to endure life's trials steadfastly and courageously. The Stoics substantiated the idea of the equality of all people before God, emphasized the frailty of earthly existence. The essence of the ethics of stoicism is expressed by the following statement of Sineki: "A person is unhappy exactly as much as he imagines it to be."
It is possible that any of the Eastern religions, primarily Judaism, could become such a system, provided that the national framework that limited its possibilities was broken.
However, none of the possible "candidates" has succeeded in its quest to achieve universal recognition. This success fell to the lot of Christianity - a fundamentally new teaching, but which absorbed from the concepts of competing teachings everything that could enrich and strengthen it.
So, Christianity, as a supranational "universal" religious system, arose in conditions when almost the entire Middle East-Mediterranean world was united within the framework of the supranational Roman Empire.
But the initial centers of this religion arose by no means in the center of this mighty empire: they appeared on its periphery, moreover, on the eastern and southeastern peripheries, in those centers of civilization mastered by mankind since ancient times, where the layers of cultural tradition were especially powerful and where centers of intersection were always concentrated. various ideological and cultural influences. It was the influence of the Jewish sects, and Greco-Roman philosophy, and the religions of the East.
At the turn of our era, Judaism, as mentioned, was in deep crisis.
Despite the fact that the number of Jews, according to the estimates of modern experts, at that time numbered several million (a very noticeable figure for this era) and that solid Jewish colonies were already spreading throughout the Mediterranean, including Egypt and Asia Minor, the specific historical situation and the real The correlation of forces more and more obviously led Jewish society to a crisis.
The crisis intensified after the submission of Judea to Rome. The secular power of Herod's dynasty did not enjoy authority. The priests of the Jerusalem temple and the parties and groups close to them (Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots) also lost power and influence, which was facilitated by their obvious dependence on the governors of Rome in Judea.
It is not surprising that this state of permanent political and socio-religious crisis led to the revival of eschatological prophecies, the activation of various sects with their expectation of a messiah who is about to come and, on behalf of the great Yahweh, will save the people entangled in contradictions, but still God's chosen people.
The Messiah (the Greek equivalent of this Jewish term is Christ) was expected by almost everyone from day to day.
The expectation of the Messiah is not only an expression of a religious and mythological idea.
The social meaning and content of messianic aspirations lie in a deep thirst for change, in a dream of rebuilding the world. At the same time, this is evidence of despair caused by the consciousness of the impossibility of eradicating evil and social injustice on earth only by one's own efforts.
The messiah, so tensely awaited, simply could not fail to appear. And he showed up, more than once. Increasingly, either in one or another region of Judea, or even outside it, on the periphery, among the Jews of the Diaspora, the leaders of individual sects, itinerant preachers or extravagant wanderers declared themselves messiahs, called to save the lost Jews.
Usually the authorities reacted painfully to the sermons of such figures.
All impostors were immediately declared false messiahs, and their activities were suppressed. This, however, could not stop the process. The losers were replaced by new ones, and everything was repeated again. Sometimes the heads of influential sects were powerful enough to challenge the all-powerful Rome. As a result of the uprisings and wars that followed (Jewish wars), Judea as a state, and with it Jerusalem and the Jerusalem temple in the 2nd century AD.
have ceased to exist.
Nevertheless, it was the constant persecution of sporadically emerging charismatic leaders and prophets, whose activities and sermons in times of crisis became more visible and in tune with common expectations, that ultimately led to the strengthening in the minds of generations of the idea of a great messiah, the Christ who came, was not recognized and understood, perished (taking upon himself the sins of people) and, miraculously resurrected, became the divine savior of mankind.
This idea was taken into service in those early Judeo-Christian sects that began to appear both in Judea itself and in the areas of settlement of the Jews of the Diaspora (Egypt, Asia Minor, etc.) closest to it at the turn of our era.
Christ - a historical figure or a legend?
The source from which Christians receive spiritual information about God, the earthly life of Jesus Christ, his disciples and the foundations of Christian teaching is the Bible.
The Bible includes many books of the Old Testament (before the coming of Jesus Christ) and the New Testament (the life and teachings of Christ and his disciples - the apostles). The Bible is a strictly canonical (canon from Greek norm, rule) book. Christians call it Holy Scripture, because.
they believe that, although it was written by specific authors, it was inspired by God himself (by divine revelation). Texts that are close in content and are not included in the Bible are considered apocryphal (from Greek secret, secret). (2)
If we compare the four canonical gospels, it is noticeable that the first three (from Matthew, from Mark and from Luke) have many common features.
For this reason they are called the synoptic gospels and are often viewed in a general way.
The synoptic gospels are based primarily on similar subjects. The books are devoted to the activities of Jesus in Galilee, his teachings, the miracles he performed, martyrdom, death and resurrection.
The texts of the Gospel sometimes coincide verbatim (for example, Mt.8:3; Mk.1:41; Lk.5:13). The Synoptic Gospels are also similar in that the material presented is grouped by topic rather than in chronological order.
The emergence of Orthodoxy
Historically, it so happened that on the territory of Russia, for the most part, several Great world religions have found their place and have peacefully coexisted from time immemorial. Paying tribute to other Religions, I want to draw your attention to Orthodoxy as the main religion of Russia.
Christianity(originated in Palestine in the 1st century AD from Judaism and received a new development after the break with Judaism in the 2nd century) - one of the three main world religions (along with Buddhism And Islam).
During the formation Christianity broke up into three main branches:
- Catholicism,
- orthodoxy,
- Protestantism,
in each of which the formation of its own, practically not coinciding with other branches, ideology began.
ORTHODOXY(which means - to praise God correctly) - one of the directions of Christianity, isolated and organizationally formed in the XI century as a result of the division of churches. The split occurred in the period from the 60s. 9th century until the 50s. 11th century As a result of the split in the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, a confession arose, which in Greek began to be called orthodoxy (from the words “orthos” - “straight”, “correct” and “doxos” - “opinion”, “judgment”, “teaching”) , and in Russian-speaking theology - Orthodoxy, and in the western part - a confession, which its followers called Catholicism (from the Greek "catholikos" - "universal", "universal"). Orthodoxy arose on the territory of the Byzantine Empire. Initially, it did not have a church center, since the church power of Byzantium was concentrated in the hands of four patriarchs: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. As the Byzantine Empire collapsed, each of the ruling patriarchs headed an independent (autocephalous) Orthodox Church. Subsequently, autocephalous and autonomous churches arose in other countries, mainly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe.
Orthodoxy is characterized by a complex, elaborate cult. The most important postulates of Orthodox doctrine are the dogmas of the trinity of God, the incarnation, redemption, resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ. It is believed that dogmas are not subject to change and clarification, not only in content, but also in form.
The religious basis of Orthodoxy isHoly Scripture (Bible) And sacred tradition.
The clergy in Orthodoxy is divided into white (married parish priests) and black (monastics who take a vow of celibacy). There are male and female monasteries. Only a monk can become a bishop. Currently in Orthodoxy highlighted
- Local Churches
- Constantinople
- Alexandria
- Antioch
- Jerusalem
- Georgian
- Serbian
- Romanian
- Bulgarian
- Cypriot
- Helladic
- Albanian
- Polish
- Czecho-Slovak
- American
- Japanese
- Chinese
Orthodoxy in Russia
The history of the Orthodox Church in Russia still remains one of the least developed areas of Russian historiography.
The history of the Russian Orthodox Church was not unambiguous: it was contradictory, replete with internal conflicts, reflecting social contradictions throughout its path.
The introduction of Christianity in Russia was a natural phenomenon for the reason that in the VIII - IX centuries. the early feudal class system begins to emerge.
Major events in history Russian Orthodoxy. In the history of Russian Orthodoxy, nine main events, nine main historical milestones can be distinguished. Here's what they look like in chronological order.
First milestone - 988. This year's event was called: "The Baptism of Rus". But this is a figurative expression. But in fact, the following processes took place: the proclamation of Christianity as the state religion of Kievan Rus and the formation of the Russian Christian Church (in the next century it will be called the Russian Orthodox Church). A symbolic action that showed that Christianity had become the state religion was the mass baptism of the people of Kiev in the Dnieper.Second milestone - 1448. This year the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) became autocephalous. Until this year, the ROC was an integral part of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Autocephaly (from the Greek words “auto” - “self” and “mullet” - “head”) meant complete independence. This year, Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich, nicknamed the Dark One (in 1446 he was blinded by his rivals in the inter-feudal struggle), ordered not to accept the metropolitan from the Greeks, but to choose his metropolitan at the local council. At a church council in Moscow in 1448, Ryazan Bishop Jonah was elected the first metropolitan of the autocephalous church. The Patriarch of Constantinople recognized the autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire (1553), after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, the Russian Orthodox Church, being the largest and most significant among the Orthodox Churches, became a natural stronghold of Universal Orthodoxy. And to this day the Russian Orthodox Church claims to be the "Third Rome".
Third milestone - 1589. Until 1589, the Russian Orthodox Church was headed by a metropolitan, and therefore it was called a metropolis. In 1589, the patriarch began to head it, and the Russian Orthodox Church became a patriarchy. Patriarch is the highest rank in Orthodoxy. The establishment of the patriarchate raised the role of the Russian Orthodox Church both in the internal life of the country and in international relations. At the same time, the importance of tsarist power also increased, which no longer relied on the metropolis, but on the patriarchy. It was possible to establish a patriarchate under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, and the main merit in raising the level of church organization in Russia belongs to the first minister of the Tsar, Boris Godunov. It was he who invited the Patriarch of Constantinople Jeremiah to Russia and obtained his consent to the establishment of a patriarchate in Russia.The fourth milestone - 1656. This year, the Moscow Local Cathedral anathematized the Old Believers. This decision of the council revealed the presence of a schism in the church. The denomination separated from the church and became known as the Old Believers. In its further development, the Old Believers turned into a set of confessions. The main reason for the split, according to historians, was the social contradictions in Russia at that time. The Old Believers were representatives of those social strata of the population who were dissatisfied with their position. Firstly, many peasants became Old Believers, who were finally enserfed at the end of the 16th century, abolishing the right to transfer to another feudal lord on the so-called “St. George's Day”. Secondly, a part of the merchant class joined the Old Believer movement, because the tsar and the feudal lords, with the economic policy of supporting foreign merchants, prevented the development of trade for their own, Russian merchant class. And finally, some well-born boyars, dissatisfied with the loss of a number of their privileges, joined the Old Believers. The reason for the split was the church reform, which was carried out by the higher clergy under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon. In particular, the reform provided for the replacement of some old rites with new ones: instead of two-fingered rites, three-fingered rites, instead of earthly bows during worship, half-length ones, instead of a procession around the temple in the sun, a procession against the sun, etc. The breakaway religious movement advocated the preservation of the old rites, this explains its title.
Fifth milestone - 1667. The Moscow Local Council of 1667 found Patriarch Nikon guilty of blaspheming Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, deprived him of his rank (proclaimed a simple monk) and sentenced him to exile in a monastery. At the same time, the cathedral for the second time anathematized the Old Believers. The Council was held with the participation of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch.
Sixth milestone - 1721. Peter I established the highest church body, which was called the Holy Synod. This government act completed the church reforms carried out by Peter I. When Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the tsar “temporarily” forbade the election of a new patriarch. This “temporary” term for the abolition of the election of the patriarch lasted 217 years (until 1917)! At first, the church was led by the Theological College established by the tsar. In 1721, the Holy Synod replaced the Theological College. All members of the Synod (there were 11 of them) were appointed and removed by the tsar. At the head of the Synod, as a minister, a government official appointed and dismissed by the tsar was placed, whose position was called “chief procurator of the Holy Synod”. If all members of the Synod were required to be priests, then this was optional for the chief prosecutor. So, in the 18th century, more than half of all chief prosecutors were military men. The church reforms of Peter I made the Russian Orthodox Church part of the state apparatus.Seventh milestone - 1917 . This year the patriarchate was restored in Russia. On August 15, 1917, for the first time after a break of more than two hundred years, a council was convened in Moscow to elect a patriarch. On October 31 (November 13, according to the new style), the cathedral elected three candidates for patriarchs. On November 5 (18) in the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the elder monk Alexy drew lots from the casket. The lot fell on Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow. At the same time, the Church experienced severe persecution from the Soviet authorities and underwent a series of schisms. On January 20, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a Decree on freedom of conscience, which “separated church from state.” Every person received the right to “profess any religion or not profess any.” Any infringement of rights on the basis of faith was prohibited. The decree also "separated the school from the church." The teaching of the Law of God was forbidden in schools. After October, Patriarch Tikhon at first spoke out with sharp denunciations of Soviet power, but in 1919 he took a more restrained position, urging the clergy not to participate in the political struggle. Nevertheless, about 10 thousand representatives of the Orthodox clergy were among the victims of the civil war. The Bolsheviks shot priests who served thanksgiving services after the fall of local Soviet power. Some of the priests accepted Soviet power and in 1921-1922. started the renewal movement. The part that did not accept this movement and did not have time or did not want to emigrate went underground and formed the so-called "catacomb church". In 1923, at the local council of the Renovationist communities, programs for the radical renewal of the Russian Orthodox Church were considered. At the council, Patriarch Tikhon was deposed and full support for the Soviet government was proclaimed. Patriarch Tikhon anathematized the Renovationists. In 1924, the Supreme Church Council was transformed into a Renovationist Synod headed by the Metropolitan. Part of the clergy and believers who found themselves in exile formed the so-called "Russian Orthodox Church Abroad". Until 1928, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia maintained close contacts with the Russian Orthodox Church, but these contacts were subsequently terminated. In the 1930s, the church was on the verge of extinction. Only since 1943 did its slow revival as a Patriarchate begin. In total, during the war years, the church collected over 300 million rubles for military needs. Many priests fought in partisan detachments and the army, were awarded military orders. During the long blockade of Leningrad, eight Orthodox churches did not cease to operate in the city. After the death of I. Stalin, the policy of the authorities towards the church became tougher again. In the summer of 1954, the decision of the Central Committee of the party to intensify anti-religious propaganda appeared. At the same time, Nikita Khrushchev made a sharp speech against religion and the church.
It is difficult to find a religion that would have such a powerful influence on the fate of mankind, as Christianity did. It would seem that the emergence of Christianity has been studied quite well. An infinite amount of material has been written about this. Church authors, historians, philosophers, and representatives of biblical criticism worked in this field. This is understandable, because it was about the greatest phenomenon, under the influence of which the modern Western civilization actually took shape. However, one of the three world religions still holds many secrets.
emergence
The creation and development of a new world religion has a complicated history. The emergence of Christianity is shrouded in secrets, legends, assumptions and assumptions. Not much is known about the adoption of this doctrine, which today is practiced by a quarter of the world's population (about 1.5 billion people). This can be explained by the fact that in Christianity, much more clearly than in Buddhism or Islam, there is a supernatural principle, belief in which usually gives rise not only to reverence, but also to skepticism. Therefore, the history of the issue was subjected to significant falsifications by various ideologists.
In addition, the emergence of Christianity, its spread was explosive. The process was accompanied by an active religious-ideological and political struggle, which significantly distorted the historical truth. Disputes on this issue continue to this day.
Birth of the Savior
The emergence and spread of Christianity is associated with the birth, deeds, death and resurrection of just one person - Jesus Christ. The basis of the new religion was the belief in the divine Savior, whose biography is given mainly by the Gospels - four canonical and numerous apocryphal ones.
In church literature, the emergence of Christianity is described in sufficient detail, in detail. Let us briefly try to convey the main events captured in the Gospels. They claim that in the city of Nazareth (Galilee), the archangel Gabriel appeared to a simple girl (“virgin”) Mary and announced the forthcoming birth of her son, but not from an earthly father, but from the Holy Spirit (God).
Mary gave birth to this son during the time of the Jewish king Herod and the Roman emperor Augustus in the city of Bethlehem, where she already went with her husband, the carpenter Joseph, to participate in the census. The shepherds, informed by angels, greeted the baby, who received the name Jesus (the Greek form of the Hebrew "Yeshua", which means "God the Savior", "God saves me").
By the movement of the stars in the sky, the eastern sages - the Magi - learned about this event. Following the star, they found a house and a baby, in which they recognized Christ (“the anointed one”, “messiah”), and brought gifts to him. Then the family, saving the child from the distraught King Herod, went to Egypt, returning, settled in Nazareth.
The apocryphal gospels tell numerous details about the life of Jesus at that time. But the canonical Gospels reflect only one episode from his childhood - a trip to Jerusalem for a feast.
Acts of the Messiah
Growing up, Jesus adopted the experience of his father, became a bricklayer and carpenter, after the death of Joseph, he fed and took care of the family. When Jesus was 30 years old, he met John the Baptist and was baptized in the Jordan River. Subsequently, he gathered 12 apostle disciples (“messengers”) and, going around with them for 3.5 years the cities and villages of Palestine, preached a completely new, peace-loving religion.
In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus substantiated the moral principles that became the basis of the worldview of the new era. At the same time, he performed various miracles: he walked on water, resurrected the dead with the touch of his hand (three such cases are recorded in the Gospels), and healed the sick. He could also calm a storm, turn water into wine, “five loaves and two fishes” to feed 5,000 people to their fill. However, it was a difficult time for Jesus. The emergence of Christianity is associated not only with miracles, but also with the suffering that he experienced later.
Persecution of Jesus
No one perceived Jesus as the Messiah, and his family even decided that he "lost his temper," that is, became violent. Only during the Transfiguration did the disciples of Jesus understand his greatness. But the preaching activity of Jesus irritated the high priests who led the Temple in Jerusalem, who declared him a false messiah. After the Last Supper, held in Jerusalem, Jesus was betrayed by one of his followers, Judas, for 30 pieces of silver.
Jesus, like any person, except for divine manifestations, felt pain and fear, so he experienced “passions” with anguish. Captured on the Mount of Olives, he was condemned by the Jewish religious court - the Sanhedrin - and sentenced to death. The verdict was approved by the governor of Rome, Pontius Pilate. During the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, Christ was subjected to martyrdom - crucifixion. At the same time, miracles happened again: earthquakes swept, the sun faded, and according to legend, “the coffins were opened” - some of the dead were resurrected.
resurrection
Jesus was buried, but on the third day he resurrected and soon appeared to the disciples. According to the canons, he ascended to heaven on a cloud, promising to return later in order to resurrect the dead, to condemn the acts of everyone at the Last Judgment, to cast sinners into hell for eternal torment, and to raise the righteous to eternal life in "mountainous" Jerusalem, the heavenly Kingdom of God. We can say that from this moment an amazing story begins - the emergence of Christianity. The believing apostles spread the new teaching throughout Asia Minor, the Mediterranean and other regions.
The founding day of the Church was the feast of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles 10 days after the Ascension, thanks to which the apostles were able to preach the new doctrine in all parts of the Roman Empire.
Secrets of history
How the emergence and development of Christianity at an early stage proceeded is not known for certain. We know what the authors of the Gospels, the apostles, told about. But the Gospels differ, and significantly, regarding the interpretation of the image of Christ. In John, Jesus is God in human form, the author emphasizes the divine nature in every possible way, and Matthew, Mark and Luke attributed to Christ the qualities of an ordinary person.
The existing gospels are written in Greek, common in the Hellenistic world, while the real Jesus and his first followers (Jewish-Christians) lived and acted in a different cultural environment, communicating in Aramaic, common in Palestine and the Middle East. Unfortunately, not a single Christian document in Aramaic has survived, although early Christian authors mention the Gospels written in this language.
After the ascension of Jesus, the sparks of the new religion seemed to die out, since there were no educated preachers among his followers. In fact, it happened that the new faith was established throughout the planet. According to church views, the emergence of Christianity is due to the fact that humanity, having departed from God and carried away by the illusion of domination over the forces of nature with the help of magic, still sought the path to God. Society, having gone through a difficult path, "ripened" to the recognition of a single creator. Scientists have also tried to explain the avalanche spread of the new religion.
Prerequisites for the emergence of a new religion
Theologians and scientists have been struggling for 2000 years over the phenomenal, rapid spread of a new religion, trying to find out these reasons. The emergence of Christianity, according to ancient sources, was recorded in the Asia Minor provinces of the Roman Empire and in Rome itself. This phenomenon was due to a number of historical factors:
- Strengthening the exploitation of the peoples subordinate and enslaved by Rome.
- The defeat of the rebel slaves.
- Crisis of polytheistic religions in Ancient Rome.
- Social need for a new religion.
The creeds, ideas and ethical principles of Christianity manifested themselves on the basis of certain social relations. In the first centuries of our era, the Romans completed the conquest of the Mediterranean. Subjugating states and peoples, Rome destroyed along the way their independence, the originality of public life. By the way, in this the emergence of Christianity and Islam are somewhat similar. Only the development of the two world religions proceeded against a different historical background.
At the beginning of the 1st century, Palestine also became a province of the Roman Empire. Its inclusion in the world empire led to the integration of Jewish religious and philosophical thought from Greco-Roman. Numerous communities of the Jewish diaspora in different parts of the empire also contributed to this.
Why a New Religion Spread in Record Time
The emergence of Christianity, a number of researchers rank as a historical miracle: too many factors coincided for the rapid, "explosive" spread of the new teaching. In fact, it was of great importance that this trend absorbed a wide and effective ideological material, which served it for the formation of its own dogma and cult.
Christianity as a world religion developed gradually under the influence of various currents and beliefs of the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia. Ideas were drawn from religious, literary and philosophical sources. This:
- Jewish messianism.
- Jewish sectarianism.
- Hellenistic syncretism.
- Oriental religions and cults.
- Folk Roman cults.
- emperor cult.
- Mysticism.
- Philosophical ideas.
Fusion of philosophy and religion
Philosophy - skepticism, epicureanism, cynicism, stoicism - had a significant role in the emergence of Christianity. The “middle Platonism” of Philo from Alexandria also had a noticeable influence. A Jewish theologian, he actually went to the service of the Roman emperor. Through an allegorical interpretation of the Bible, Philo sought to merge the monotheism of the Jewish religion (belief in one God) and elements of Greco-Roman philosophy.
No less influenced by the moral teachings of the Roman Stoic philosopher and writer Seneca. He considered earthly life as a threshold to rebirth in the other world. Seneca considered the acquisition of freedom of the spirit through the realization of divine necessity to be the main thing for a person. That is why later researchers called Seneca the "uncle" of Christianity.
Dating problem
The emergence of Christianity is inextricably linked with the problem of dating events. The fact is indisputable - it arose in the Roman Empire at the turn of our era. But when exactly? And where is the grandiose empire that covered the entire Mediterranean, a significant part of Europe, Asia Minor?
According to the traditional interpretation, the origin of the main postulates falls on the years of the preaching activity of Jesus (30-33 AD). Scholars partially agree with this, but add that the doctrine was compiled after the execution of Jesus. Moreover, of the four canonically recognized authors of the New Testament, only Matthew and John were disciples of Jesus Christ, they were witnesses of the events, that is, they were in contact with the direct source of the teaching.
Others (Mark and Luke) have already received some of the information indirectly. It is obvious that the formation of the doctrine was stretched out in time. It is natural. Indeed, after the “revolutionary explosion of ideas” in the time of Christ, an evolutionary process of assimilation and development of these ideas by his disciples began, which gave the teaching a completed look. This is noticeable in the analysis of the New Testament, the writing of which continued until the end of the 1st century. True, there are still various dating of books: the Christian tradition limits the writing of sacred texts to a period of 2-3 decades after the death of Jesus, and some researchers stretch this process until the middle of the 2nd century.
It is historically known that the teachings of Christ spread in Eastern Europe in the 9th century. The new ideology came to Russia not from any single center, but through various channels:
- from the Black Sea region (Byzantium, Chersonese);
- because of the Varangian (Baltic) Sea;
- along the Danube.
Archaeologists testify that certain groups of Russians were baptized already in the 9th century, and not in the 10th century, when Vladimir baptized the people of Kiev in the river. Before Kyiv, Chersonese was baptized - a Greek colony in the Crimea, with which the Slavs maintained close ties. The contacts of the Slavic peoples with the population of ancient Taurida were constantly expanding with the development of economic relations. The population constantly participated not only in the material, but also in the spiritual life of the colonies, where the first exiles - Christians - went into exile.
Also possible intermediaries in the penetration of religion into the East Slavic lands could be the Goths, moving from the shores of the Baltic to the Black Sea. Among them, in the 4th century, Christianity was spread in the form of Arianism by Bishop Ulfilas, who owns the translation of the Bible into the Gothic language. The Bulgarian linguist V. Georgiev suggests that the Proto-Slavic words "church", "cross", "Lord" were probably inherited from the Gothic language.
The third way is the Danube one, which is associated with the enlighteners Cyril and Methodius. The main leitmotif of the teachings of Cyril and Methodius was the synthesis of the achievements of Eastern and Western Christianity on the basis of Proto-Slavic culture. Enlighteners created the original Slavic alphabet, translated liturgical and church-canonical texts. That is, Cyril and Methodius laid the foundations of church organization in our lands.
The official date of the baptism of Russia is 988, when Prince Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich massively baptized the inhabitants of Kyiv.
Output
It is impossible to briefly characterize the emergence of Christianity. Too many historical mysteries, religious and philosophical disputes unfold around this issue. However, more important is the idea carried by this teaching: philanthropy, compassion, helping one's neighbor, condemning shameful deeds. It doesn't matter how a new religion was born, what matters is what it brought to our world: faith, hope, love.
