The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.
Read the text and do tasks 1-3.
(1) One of the ingenious devices that nature endowed cacti with is thorns. (2) ______ they help plants survive in the hot and arid regions of South and North America: sharp and splayed spines protect plants from being eaten by animals, dense and tight-fitting - save from daily temperature changes, long and thick - create, like blinds, a shadow, and the nectar that accumulates on the tips of some spines attracts pollinating insects. (3) The spines also help cacti survive drought by condensing steam and retaining dew and raindrops.
1
Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?
1. Different types of thorns protect cacti in hot and arid regions of America from animals and temperature extremes, provide shade and attract pollinating insects, and also condense water vapor and retain moisture.
2. Sharp and splayed thorns protect plants from being eaten by animals, thick and tight-fitting ones save cacti from daily temperature fluctuations, long and thick ones create a shadow.
3. Protecting from animals and temperature changes, providing shade and attracting insect pollinators, condensing water vapor and retaining moisture, different types of thorns help cacti survive in arid areas of America.
4. The nectar that accumulates on the tips of some spines attracts pollinating insects, which is why there are so many cacti in the hot and arid regions of America.
5. Thorns, being one of the ingenious devices that nature endowed cacti with, save these plants from being eaten by animals, from temperature extremes, and also create a shadow.
2
Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).
1. Therefore
4. In other words
3
Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meanings of the word AREA. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in sentence 2. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
REGION, -i, f.
1. Large administrative-territorial unit. Moscow region.
2. Branch of activity, circle of occupations, ideas. New field of science.
3. Part of the country, territory. Northern regions of Europe.
4. A separate part of the body. Pain in the chest area.
4
In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.
plum
bent
5
In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
1. All the bushes and Christmas trees growing around were covered with cobwebs, and each cobweb was studded with tiny WATER pearls.
2. This year, the school's football team was REPLENISHED with two new players - students of the eleventh grade.
3. First you need to SELECT the archived file, and then switch to the archive viewing mode using the "view" button.
4. Heavy, CLAYY soils, low relief areas, peat bogs are unsuitable for growing felt cherries.
5. A bench is an indispensable attribute in a design decision when decorating a territory, because it is always a pleasure to relax on a beautiful, comfortable, GOOD bench.
6
In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
FIVE HUNDRED visitor
DEEPEST IN THE WORLD
MORE WIDE
THEIR worries
young ENGINEERS
7
Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
| SUGGESTIONS | GRAMMATICAL ERRORS |
| A) Graduate students at the University of Weimar have created a computer projector that shows both movies and TV shows on any surface. | 1) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition |
| B) By creating landscape sketches, artists capture the beauty of Russia. | 2) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate |
| C) Those who know more by virtue of their education or passion will fill in the gaps of others. | 3) violation in the construction of a proposal with an inconsistent application |
| D) Thanks to antibiotics, many diseases have ceased to be deadly to humans. | 4) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members |
| E) The hand of the engraver with the tool, as a rule, moves little: lying on a special pillow, the plate moves. | 5) incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial turnover |
| 6) violation in the construction of a sentence with participial turnover | |
| 7) incorrect construction of a sentence with indirect speech. |
Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.
8
Determine the word in which the unstressed checked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.
hydrogen..left
assumption
hint..read
collaborative
g..risty
9
Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.
pr .. raised, pr .. extinguish
r .. get together, from .. take
be..noisy, in..sing
oh .. died, po .. guard
pr..chal, pr..possible
10
Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.
get upset
pr..quirky
reckless..out
obsolete..vat
shudder..wat
11
Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.
destroyed..
despair
incessantly.. my
ironed..
angry..shush
12
Find a sentence in which NOT with the word is spelled CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write out this word.
1. Huge in area, the powerful Roman Empire, on the territory of which today there are more than thirty states, (im)could not exist without roads.
2. The work of Yuri Knorozov on deciphering the Mayan script was so impressive that the young scientist was awarded the title of (not) candidate, but immediately a doctor of science.
3. (Despite) despite the obstacles, from century to century, the printed book gained strength: printing presses improved, and paper became cheaper.
4. (Without) leaving home, today you can make an appointment with a doctor at a polyclinic, apply for statutory benefits and compensations.
5. There were still (un)opened letters on the table.
13
Find a sentence in which both underlined words are spelled TOGETHER. Open the brackets and write out these two words.
1) (APPOINTINGLY) APPARENTLY, a person treats butterflies with great interest and even enthusiasm, BECAUSE (THAT) butterflies are a real miracle of nature, perhaps one of her best creations. 2) Modern European civilization was born and grew (IN) CIRCLE of the Mediterranean Sea, and it is enough to look at a map or a globe to understand: these are unique places. 3) The ancient Romans were famous for their ability to build first-class roads, (WITH) WHAT they did (FOR) CENTURIES: part of the road network they built two millennia ago in Europe was used for its intended purpose until the beginning of the 20th century! 4) Archimedes, (WITHOUT) DOUBT, knew how to appreciate the beauty of geometric figures and mathematical formulas, SO (THAT) it is no coincidence that it is not a catapult or a burning galley that decorates his grave, but an image of a ball inscribed in a cylinder. 5) The creation of a microclimate favorable for plants in the greenhouse (IN) MUCH contributes to the stone wall of the house, which heats up (B) DURING the day.
14
Indicate all the numbers in the place of which HH is written.
Numerous (1) publications are known about the unexpected (2) invention of Daguerre, which was patented (3) in England, Austria and Germany, where countless (4) photo studios were opened and amateurs mastered the daguerreotype technique.
15
Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.
1) The interiors of the palace were decorated with gilded carvings and stucco, fancy mirrors, painted plafonds, and tiled stoves.
2) The urban intelligentsia and museum workers have made a lot of efforts to preserve the old urban buildings, as well as ancient monuments.
3) Ancient Gorodets is known not so much for the venerable age of the inhabitants, their courage and the successes of the local merchants and industrialists, but for the craftsmen.
4) The artists of Gorodets on smoothly planed boards depicted horsemen and carriages with mistresses of village dandies and prancing horses, magic flowers and fabulous birds.
5) Modern Red Square cannot be imagined without the bright ornate nine-domed Pokrovsky Cathedral.
16
Scientists believe that meteorites and asteroids (1) were discovered, which are fragments (2) of a large planet that once existed in the solar system (3) made its movement (4) around the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
17
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.
With the help of the Academy of Sciences, Russia (1) truly (2) realized itself throughout the entire space from St. Petersburg to Kamchatka, found out its wonderful history, streamlined the Russian language and created its own (3) no doubt (4) great science, poetry and literature.
18
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.
A rich business program (1) in the framework of (2) which (3) organized seminars on topical issues of education using the latest technologies (4) traditionally accompanied the exhibition of computer technology.
19
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.
For the boat, there is a certain limit angle of inclination (1) and (2) if the boat is not leveled in time (3), then it becomes uncontrollable (4) which can lead to serious consequences.
20
Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by excluding the extra word. Write out this word.
The playwright spoke about the new production and that many unexpected surprises await us in the development of the plot.
Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.
(1) Upon returning from distant lands, I planted my garden in the village with all sorts of tree varieties, mountain ash and viburnum. (2) One mountain ash, nestled near the side of a modern concrete road, on a steep drift was crushed by the wheels of cars, scratched, crumpled. (Z) I decided to dig it up and take it to my feral garden.
(4) It was in autumn. (5) A few dusty leaves and two crumpled rosettes of berries survived on the mountain ash. (6) Planted in the courtyard, under the window, the mountain ash cheered up, in the summer it bloomed with four rosettes. (7) And every summer, every autumn it was decorated with one or two rosettes, and it became so bright, so elegant and self-confident - you can’t take your eyes off it! (8) And if autumn fell warm, the mountain ash tried to bloom a second time.
(9) Two years later, seedlings were brought from the city nursery, in the free space I planted four more mountain ash. (10) These went in breadth. (11) As soon as one or two rosettes of berries are washed out, but the greenery is lush on them, but there are already swarms of leaves, such imposing young ladies from city lands.
(12) And my wild animal has become quite adult and cheerful. (13) One autumn, a particularly bright berry grew on it. (14) And suddenly a flock of waxwings fell on top of her, the birds together began to feast on the berry. (15) And they are talking, talking: this is what mountain ash we found, what yummy summer has in store for us. (16) In about ten minutes, the crested elegant workers cleaned the tree, but they didn’t even sit down on those from the nursery.
(17) I thought, then, when there is less food left in the forests and gardens, the birds will certainly fly. (18) No, they didn’t. (19) In the following autumns, if waxwings happened to fly into my forest that had grown in the garden, they habitually sat down on a mountain ash-wild bird and, as before, on those nursery trees, lazily grinding out several rosettes, they never coveted.
(20) There is, there is the soul of things, there is, there is the soul of plants. (21) The wild mountain ash, with its grateful and quiet soul, heard, lured and fed the whimsical gourmet birds. (22) Yes, and I once plucked bright fruits from rosettes. (23) Strong, tart, they give away taiga - the tree where it grew up has not forgotten, it has preserved the taiga juice in its veins.
(24) And around the mountain ash and under it, flowers grow - the stonefly lungwort. (25) On still bare ground, after a long winter, it pleases the eye. (26) At first, it bloomed thickly in the garden, even velvet leaves grow out of the ridges in some places - and immediately bloom, multiply the stems. (27) Following the calendula comes out and all the summer it glows with hot coals here and there, there is nowhere to grow vegetables. (28) My aunt was intemperate in her word, she took up weeding in the garden and, well, scolding the lungwort with calendula in black. (29) I, a valiant master, joined my aunt.
1. system is a set of objects that are in some kind of relationship with each other. The structure of a system is characterized by its components and their relationships with each other.
2. Subsystem called the largest part of the system, which has a certain autonomy and is itself a system of a lower level.
3. Hierarchy is called the subordination of systems to each other.
4. Structure A system is a set of interconnections and interactions of its elements, due to which the properties of the system arise that are absent from its parts.
5. The presence of system properties that are absent from its constituent parts is called integrativity or emergence.
6. integrity system is called its generalized characteristic, reflecting the unity of its parts in a variety of relationships.
7. Additivity- this is a property of quantities, which consists in the fact that the value of the quantities corresponding to the system is equal to the sum of the values of similar quantities of its elements.
8. reductionism is called the reduction of a more complex and higher level of development to a simpler one.
9. Determinism- a philosophical doctrine of the objective regular relationship and causation of all phenomena. P. S. Laplace’s formulation: “If there were a mind that was aware at the moment of all the forces of nature at the points of application of these forces, then there would be nothing left that would be unreliable for it, and the future, like the past, appeared before his eyes."
10. dynamic system is a mathematical object corresponding to real physical, biological and other objects, the evolution of which is uniquely determined by the initial state.
11. The set of states of a dynamic system is described by a set of variables and is represented by points in the phase space.
12. The evolution of a dynamical system is displayed by trajectories in the phase space.
13. Dynamic systems are divided into the following classes:
– finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional;
– conservative(in which mechanical energy is conserved) and dissipative(in which mechanical energy is dissipated);
– with continuous time (flows) and with discrete time (cascades);
– rough (structurally stable) and non-rough.
14. The value of the parameter at which the system loses roughness (stability) is called bifurcation.
15. The steady motion of a dissipative system corresponds to attractor is the set of trajectories to which all close trajectories are attracted.
16. dynamic chaos is called an irregular change in the state of a dynamic system, which has the basic properties of a random process. Examples of systems with dynamic chaos: planetary systems, weather and climate, turbulence, stock markets.
17. open A system is called a system capable of exchanging matter, energy and information with the environment.
18. Feedback called the impact of the results of the functioning of a system on the nature of this functioning. Feedback is called positive if its influence enhances the results of functioning, and, conversely, negative when these results are weakened.
19. self-adjusting called a system that can ensure the constancy of its structure, properties and functions. In such a system, all deviations arising under the influence of the environment are reduced or eliminated during the operational functioning of negative feedbacks.
Figure 3.1 shows the relationship between a self-regulating system (control object) and the control link. The arrows show the information flows. Information about deviations in the object enters the control link (left branch), from where commands go to the object that can reduce the deviations that occur there (right branch). The totality of these flows forms a negative feedback loop.
20. The property of maintaining one's quality (self-regulation) is called homeostatic. There are limits of deviations within which the system is capable of self-regulation. The permissible limit of each specific deviation is called homeostatic range. With the operational functioning of negative feedbacks, deviations do not leave the boundaries of the homeostatic range, therefore, self-regulation is realized in the system (Fig. 3.2, option 1). If the feedbacks are late, then the deviations go beyond the allowable range (option 2 in Fig. 3.2). If the feedback fails, then the deviations can grow arbitrarily large, this means the death of the system or its transition to a different quality (option 3 in Fig. 3.2)
21. In the second half of the 20th century, the idea of self-organization matter. Synergetics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics are theories that study the general laws of self-organization.
23. Subject of study synergetics are general patterns of self-organization in natural and social systems.
24. Synergetics is based on the following ideas:
– the processes of destruction and creation, as well as the processes of degradation and evolution in the Universe are equal;
- the processes of creation (increasing complexity and orderliness) have a single algorithm, regardless of the nature of the systems in which they are carried out.
25 self-organization- this is a spontaneous transition from less complex to more complex and ordered forms of organization of matter. Examples of self-organization are laser radiation, Benard cells, the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, and spiral waves.
26. Entropy open system may decrease if this system receives more order from the environment than it produces disorder within itself. In such a system, self-organization takes place. In the general case, the change in entropy in an open system is determined by the sum of its two flows: outgoing into the environment (here the entropy always grows) and incoming from the environment (here the entropy can both increase and decrease).
27. Examples self-organizing systems in which entropy can decrease are living organisms. They receive order from the external environment in the form of food, which is a highly organized structure. In addition, all organisms return substances in a greatly simplified state to the environment, increasing the entropy of the external environment.
28. A seeming paradox is the evolution of living things, which occurs with a decrease in entropy in living systems against the background of a general increase in entropy.
29. An open system is planet Earth receiving energy from the external environment. The processes of self-organization are going on on the planet, in which more entropy is dumped into the surrounding space than is produced on Earth and comes from outside.
30. Necessary conditions of self-organization are the following:
- the system must be open, since an isolated system, according to the second law of thermodynamics, can only evolve towards disorganization. An important role in the process of transition from disorder to order is played by dissipative processes, therefore the emerging new states of matter are called dissipative structures. It is the dissipation of energy that causes unstable motions - fluctuations or deviations, the result of their development are new stable dissipative structures. observed in nature spatially periodic, temporary And space-time dissipative structures;
– self-organizing systems should be essentially non-equilibrium, that is, the deviation from equilibrium must exceed a certain critical value. Near the equilibrium position, the system will be able to approach it and come to a state of complete disorganization. Far from the equilibrium position, the system will be able to adapt to its environment in different ways, which means that for the same values of the parameters, several different solutions are possible;
- systems in which self-organization occurs, non-linear, that is, the principle of superposition does not apply to them. The combined effect of two causes can lead to consequences that differ sharply from the results of these actions separately. The influence of weaker influences may turn out to be more significant than the influence of strong ones, if the first ones turn out to be adequate to the system's own tendencies. An example is the phenomenon of resonance. Nonlinear processes can have a threshold character: with a smooth change in external conditions, the behavior of the system changes abruptly if the external parameter has reached a critical value;
– microscopic processes must occur in concert(corporate or coherent). This means that the system must behave as a whole. Here there is a significant difference between self-developing systems and self-regulating ones. Self-regulating system will dampen deviations during operational operation negative feedback, which will ensure the preservation of the previous quality. On the contrary, the emergence of a new quality (i.e., self-organization) is due to the accumulation and intensification of deviations (fluctuations) in the system under the action of positive feedback.
31. There are two periods in self-organization (Fig. 3.3):
– smooth evolutionary development ( adaptation), as a result of which the system reaches an unstable critical state;
– exit from a critical state to a new stable state (bifurcation), more complex and ordered.
32. Bifurcation is called the achievement by the system of a critical state, the exit from which is carried out by a jump, and the choice of the path of further development is ambiguous and unpredictable.
33. Near the bifurcation point the fluctuations increase, after the bifurcation point the fluctuations stabilize, a new stable state sets in – order out of chaos.
34. Principles universal evolutionism:
- the idea of universal development;
– an objective and cognizable process of self-organization;
- a single process of development of inanimate nature, living matter and human society;
– the fundamental and irremovable role of randomness and uncertainty;
- the laws of nature are the principles of selection of admissible states from all conceivable ones;
- development is an alternation of slow quantitative and fast qualitative changes (bifurcations);
– the unpredictability of the way out of the bifurcation point means that the past influences the future, but does not determine it;
- the stability and reliability of natural systems is the result of their constant renewal;
- the developing system evolves together with the environment, which is called co-evolution.
Option 3
Part 1
The answers to tasks 1-24 are a number (number) or a word (several words), a sequence of numbers (numbers). Write down the answer in the answer field in the text of the work, and then transfer it to the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.
Read the text and complete tasks 1-3.
(1) At different stages of history, there were many theories about the structure of our world. (2) All of them were depicted in the form of drawings, diagrams, models. (3)<...>time and the achievements of scientific and technological progress have put everything in its place, and the heliocentric mathematical model of the solar system is already an axiom.
Exercise 1.
Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the main information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) Thanks to the achievements of scientific and technological progress, the heliocentric mathematical model of the solar system was depicted in the form of drawings and diagrams.
2) The heliocentric mathematical model of the solar system, which reflects the structure of our world and is currently an axiom, appeared over time due to scientific and technological progress.
3) All images of the heliocentric mathematical model of the solar system in the form of drawings and diagrams have become an axiom due to technological progress.
4) Thanks to the achievements of scientific and technological progress, many theories of the structure of our world that existed in different periods of history were eventually replaced by the heliocentric mathematical model of the solar system, which became an axiom.
5) At different stages of history, the heliocentric mathematical model of the solar system reflected many theories of the structure of our world.
Task 2.
Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).
Vice versa,
That's why
If only
Nevertheless
But
Task 3.
Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word MODEL. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
MODEL [de], -i, f.
1. A sample of some. products or a sample for the manufacture of something, as well as an object from which an image is reproduced. New m. dresses. M. for casting. Models for sculptures.
2. Reduced (or life-size) reproduction or mock-up of something. M. ship. Flying aircraft m.
3. Type, design brand. New car m.
4. Scheme of some. physical object or phenomenon (spec.). M. atom. M. artificial language.
5. Mannequin or fashion model, as well as (obsolete) model or model.
Task 4.
In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel was incorrectly highlighted. Write out this word.
filmed
cones
religion
drenched
NarwhalA
Task 5.
In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the lexical error by choosing a paronym for the highlighted word. Write down the chosen word.
According to the results of the junior championship of the country and the fifth stage of the Cup of Russia, the rating of the Biathlon Union has undergone changes.
A HIDDEN person avoids frankness, is uncommunicative, does not tell others anything about himself, hides his feelings, thoughts, moods.
According to modern psychologists, the vocabulary of a secondary school student is about 5,000 words.
I pulled the rod out of the water, but the fish fell off - only a PIECE of fishing line fluttered in the wind.
Tuber nutrients contribute to the rapid growth of the ROOT system of the flower.
Task 6.
In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
delicious CAKES
no CANDLES
THE SOFTEST marshmallow
refrain from COMMENTS
in two thousand and five
Task 7.
Establish a correspondence between grammatical errors and sentences in which they are made: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
Grammatical errors
A) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members
B) a violation in the construction of a sentence with a participial turnover
B) an error in the construction of a complex sentence
D) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate
E) violation in the construction of a sentence with an inconsistent application
Offers
1) A flock of sheep spent the night by the wide road, called the Great Way.
2) The dog was frightened in earnest, but, not wanting to betray his fear, barked loudly.
3) In his book "Text as an Object of Linguistic Research"
4) I. R. Galperin explores and discusses the problems of text linguistics. Once at the Van Gogh exhibition, I was struck by the painting "Irises".
5) In the painting “Portrait of a Son” by V. A. Tropinin, both paternal affection and boundless love for his son are felt.
6) Six paintings dedicated to the northern Russian nature, F. A. Vasiliev painted in the Crimea.
7) The city of Sochi became the capital of the XXII Winter Olympic Games!
8) The anticipation of a thunderstorm is that brief moment when a person who knows how to keenly feel the beautiful experiences genuine delight.
9) It cannot be said that the fisherman's house was attractive and cozy.
Task 8.
Determine the word in which the unstressed unchecked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.
floor..misize
in..rusty
m..pricing
with..tevoy (cord)
mirror..lo
Task 9.
Find a row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write these words out with the missing letter.
once .. united, in .. drive
about .. took, on .. writing
pr..funny, pr..winged
with .. again, vz .. mother
and .. fry, .. deal
Task 10.
Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.
fast.. little
beans..vy
offended .. be
ugly .. out
imply .. to
Task 11.
Write down the word in which the letter Yu is written at the place of the gap.
under construction
ver..
(they) squint ..
ka..shchisya
(they) compute..t
Task 12.
Identify the sentence in which NOT with the word is spelled CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write out this word.
Two cold matinees fell, and (NOT) SUCCESSFUL to bloom chrysanthemums faded. Everyone noticed that the cockpit is completely (NOT) BLIND, as we assumed before.
Every time I raised a conversation about hunting, Yarmola had some excuse for refusing: either his gun was (NOT) CORRECTLY, or the dog was sick, or he had no time.
Seryozhka was making something out of shells, tilting his head and (NOT) NOTICING anything around.
The apple trees in our gardens are (NOT) BREAKING, but neat, similar to one another, rounded.
Task 13.
Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are written ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.
When designing modern cars, a lot of attention is paid to safety issues, but accidents EVERYTHING (SAME) happen, BECAUSE (WHAT) their main cause is the person himself.
After experiencing some economic recession (IN) THE EARLY 1990s, the country achieved significant growth not only (OUT) THROUGH the oil sector, but also thanks to a developed service sector.
(FOR) THEN, the manager quickly left the boss's office and, (NOT) LOOKING at anyone, headed for the exit.
TO (WOULD) conserve natural resources and reduce environmental pollution, machine builders of (IN)PLACE gasoline and diesel internal combustion engines offer gas turbines and battery electric motors.
The main attraction of the island (BY) RIGHT are gigantic turtles: there are (C) ABOVE 150 thousand of them here.
Task 14.
Indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) is written N.
Baked (1) potatoes are a traditional (2) tourist dish. Some travelers (3) iki, so that the potatoes do not char, cook it in a tin (4) jar or bucket, covering it with a sandy (5) layer.
Task 15.
Set up punctuation marks. Give two sentences that require
put ONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) Above the small regimental airfield, bombers floated and swam in single file, then in crane shoals, then in a deployed formation.
2) It is getting dark and an evening thunderstorm flickers in the thick blue.
3) Aesthetic education is required not only for a writer and artist, but also for a worker.
4) After a conversation with his father, Andrei stood neither alive nor dead.
5) Eucalyptus leaves are widely used for healing wounds and for treating sore throats and for making perfumes and soaps.
Task 16.
Spreading mighty wings (1) and (2) springing (3) strong clawed paws (4) ready to strike (5), the bird circled over the middle of the river.
Task 17.
Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) should (s) be a comma (s).
The milder climate of the tundra is able to provide food for numerous birds and animals (1) however (2) even in the more severe polar regions, thousands of living creatures (3) imagine (4) manage to find food.
Task 18.
Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) in the sentence should (s) be a comma (s).
The animal organism has a need for warmth; its functioning (1) is a consequence of a whole series of chemical reactions (2) the speed (3) of passing (4) of which (5) is closely related to temperature.
Task 19.
Place all punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.
Such a fullness of tenderness is embedded in this music (1) that (2) when Pyotr Ilyich quietly hummed to himself this widely spreading bright melody (3) something caught his throat (4) tears appeared in his eyes.
Read the text and complete tasks 20-25.
(1) In the autumn forest everything was yellow and crimson, everything seemed to be burning and shining together with the sun. (2) The trees were just beginning to shed their clothes, and the leaves were falling, swaying in the air, silently and smoothly. (Z) It was cool and easy, and therefore fun. (4) The autumn smell of the forest is special, unique, persistent and pure so much that Bim could smell the owner from tens of meters away.
(5) Now the owner sat down on a stump, ordered Bim to sit too, and he took off his cap, put it next to him on the ground and looked at the leaves. (6) And listened to the silence of the forest.
(7) Well, of course, he was smiling! (8) He was now the same as always before the start of the hunt.
(9) And so the owner got up, uncovered the gun, put in the cartridges. (10) Bim trembled with excitement. (11) Ivan Ivanovich patted him affectionately on the back of the neck, which made Bim even more agitated.
- (12) Well, boy, look!
(13) Bim went! (14) He went in a small shuttle, maneuvering between the trees, squat, springy and almost silently. (15) Ivan Ivanovich slowly followed him, admiring the work of a friend. (16) Now the forest with all the beauties has remained in the background: the main thing is Bim, graceful, passionate, easy on the go.
(17) Occasionally calling him to him, Ivan Ivanovich ordered him to lie down in order to let him calm down, get involved. (18) And soon Bim already went smoothly, with knowledge of the matter. (19) Great art is the work of a setter! (20) Here he walks at a light gallop, raising his head, he doesn’t need to lower it and look from below, he takes smells on horseback, while silky hair hugs his chiseled neck, which is why he is so beautiful that he holds his head high, with dignity, confidence and passion.
(21) The forest was silent. (22) Golden birch leaves played only a little, bathing in the sparkles of the sun. (23) Young oak trees quieted down next to the majestic giant oak - the father and progenitor. (24) The silver-gray leaves remaining on the aspen trembled silently. (25) And on the fallen yellow foliage stood a dog - one of the best creations of nature and a patient person. (26) Not a single muscle will flinch! (27) That's what a classic stance in a yellow forest is!
- (28) Go, boy!
(29) Bim raised the woodcock on the wing.
(30) Shot!
(31) The forest started, answering with a disgruntled, offended echo. (32) It seemed that the birch, which had climbed onto the border of the oak and aspen forests, was frightened, shuddered. (ZZ) Oaks gasped like heroes. (34) Aspens, which are nearby, hastily sprinkled with leaves.
(Zb) The woodcock fell in a lump. (Zb) Bim filed it according to all the rules. (37) But the owner, after caressing Bim and thanking him for the beautiful work, held the bird in his palm, looked at it and said thoughtfully:
"Oh, you shouldn't...
(38) Bim did not understand, peered into the face of Ivan Ivanovich, and he continued:
- For you only, Bim, for you, silly. (39) And so - it's not worth it.
(40) Yesterday was a happy day. (41) Everything is right: autumn, sun, yellow forest,
fine work by Beam. (42) But still, some kind of sediment on the soul. (43) Why not?
(44) I began to feel sorry for killing game. (45) So good around, and suddenly a dead bird. (46) I am not a vegetarian and not a hypocrite, describing the suffering of killed animals and eating their meat with pleasure, but until the end of my days I set myself a condition: one or two woodcocks for hunting, no more. (47) If not a single one, it would be even better, but then Bim will die like a hunting dog, and I will have to buy a bird that someone else will kill for me. (48) No, excuse me from this ...
(49) Where does the sediment from yesterday come from? (50) And is it only from yesterday?
(51) Did I miss some thought? .. (52) So, yesterday: the pursuit of happiness, the yellow forest - and the killed bird. (53) What is it: is it a deal with your conscience?
(54) Stop! (55) This is the thought that slipped away yesterday: not a deal, but a reproach of conscience and pain for everyone who kills uselessly when a person loses his humanity.
(56) From the past, from the memories of the past comes and grows in me more and more pity for birds and animals.
(57) Oh, yellow forest, yellow forest! (58) Here is a piece of happiness for you, here is a place for you to think. (59) In the autumn sunny forest, a person becomes<...>.
(According to G. N. Troepolsky *)
* Gavriil Nikolaevich Troepolsky (1905-1995) - Russian Soviet writer.
Task 20.
Which of the following words should be in place of the gap in sentence 59? Write out this word.
unfortunate
poacher
prude
cleaner
more talkative
Task 21.
Which of the following statements are false? Specify the answer numbers.
1. Sentences 1-4 contain a description.
2. Sentences 9-11 present the narrative.
3. Sentence 27 contains an emotional-evaluative judgment about what is said in sentence 23.
4. Sentences 46-48 contain narration.
5. Sentences 54-56 present reasoning.
Task 22.
Write out the obsolete word from sentences 1-8.
Task 23.
Among sentences 1-11, find one (s) that is (s) connected with the previous one using word forms. Write the number(s) of this offer(s).
Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while doing tasks 20-23.
This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Insert in the gaps (A, B, C, D) the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write in the table under each letter the corresponding number.
Write the sequence of numbers in the ANSWER FORM "1 to the right of the task number 24, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas and other additional characters.
Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form.
Task 24.
“The feeling that you are in the forest is created, perhaps, by everyone when reading the text of G. N. Troepolsky. And this is no coincidence, because when describing nature, the writer uses the entire palette of linguistic means of expression, in particular the tropes - (A) ________ ("the forest was silent", "the leaves of the birches played", "the oaks quieted down" in sentences 21- 23), reception - (B) _______________ ("yellow forest" in sentence 57, "here you are" in sentence 58). A special role in the description of the forest is played by (C) __________ ("golden leaves" in sentence 22, "the majestic giant "in sentence 23). This trope helps to convey the narrator's perception of the harmony of nature. Against this background, the technique stands out even brighter - (D) ____________ (in sentences 45, 52)".
List of terms:
1) phraseological unit
2) alliteration
3) lexical repetition
4) metonymy
5) appeal
6) opposition
7) litote
8) impersonation
9) epithet
Task 25.
Write co-chi-non-nie according to the pro-chi-tan-no-mu text.
Sfor-mu-li-rui-te and pro-com-men-ti-rui-te one of the problems posed by the author of the text (avoid over-quoting ).
Sfor-mu-li-rui-te in-zi-tsu av-to-ra (narrator). Write whether you agree or disagree with the voice with the point of view of the author of the pro-chi-tan-no-go text. Explain why. Argue your answer, relying primarily on the reader's experience, as well as knowledge and life observations (the first two arguments are taken into account).
The volume of co-chi-non-nia is at least 150 words.
Work, on-pi-san-naya without relying on a pro-chi-tan text (not according to this text), is not evaluated. If co-chi-non-nye represents a re-said or full-of-stu re-re-pi-san-ny source text without any there were no comments, then such a ra-bo-ta estimate-no-va-et-xia zero points.
Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.
Answers:
1 - 24 or 42
2 - darker
3 - 4
4 - religion
5 - secretive
6 - two
7 - 34975
8 - patronage
9 - disconnected entry or entrance disconnected
10 - quarrelsome
11 - penitent
12 - faulty
13 - to instead of or instead of to
14 - 145 or any other sequence of these numbers
15 - 23 or 32
16 - 45 or 54
17 - 134 or any other sequence of these numbers
18 - 2
19 - 134 or any other sequence of these numbers
20 - cleaner
21 - 34 or 43
22 - robe
23 - 5
24 - 8396
25. Approximate range of problems
1. The problem of the impact of nature on man. (What effect does nature have on man?)
2. The problem of attitude towards birds and animals. (Is it permissible to kill birds and animals?)
3. The problem of the relationship between man and dog. (What is the relationship between man and dog based on?)
1. The beauty of nature awakens in a person a feeling of joy, happiness, transforms, cleanses a person, immerses him in thought.
2. The useless killing of birds and animals is unacceptable, because by killing them, a person loses his humanity, goes against his conscience, a feeling of pity for them.
3. A dog - one of the best creations of nature and man - is devoted to its owner, and a person who appreciates this devotion responds with love and care.
dwelling
Results of observations
9. In the historical core of cities and in areas of industrial construction carried out in the 19th century, overpopulation is noted (density reaches 1000 and even 1500 people per hectare)
Density, i.e., the ratio between the number of the population and the area of the territory on which it lives, can be significantly changed by varying the height of the building. But until now, the number of storeys of buildings has been limited to six or seven floors. The densities allowed for such a number of storeys are 250-300 inhabitants per 1 ha. If this density, as is the case in many areas, reaches 600, 800 or even 1000 inhabitants, then slums are formed, characterized by the following features:
1) insufficient living space per person; 2) extremely low illumination of the premises; 3) insufficient insolation (northern orientation of the premises or their darkness in narrow streets and cramped courtyards); 4) dilapidation of buildings and the presence of pathogenic conditions (tuberculosis); 5) absence or insufficiency of sanitary facilities; 6) overcrowding of the population living in cramped apartments, poor houses located in unfavorable conditions.
The core of ancient cities, surrounded by defensive fortifications, as a rule, is densely built up with houses, deprived of the free space surrounding them. Outside the city walls, there were vast green areas easily accessible to the public. Over time, urban development grew, and green vegetation gave way to stone buildings. So the "lungs" of cities were destroyed. Under these conditions, high density means a sharp deterioration in the life of the population.
10. The overcrowding of urban areas creates detrimental living conditions for the population. These conditions are caused by the lack of necessary living space and proper maintenance of the buildings (the operation of the houses is based on speculation). The situation is aggravated by the presence of a large number of people with a low standard of living, unable to provide themselves with protective measures against diseases (mortality reaches 20%)
The slum nature of a dwelling is determined mainly by its internal condition. But poverty continues beyond the flats - in narrow and gloomy streets, devoid of greenery - a source of oxygen, so necessary for the development of children.
The funds invested in the construction of these cities in ancient times have long been amortized; but still it is considered possible that the owner of a squalid dwelling exploits it as a marketable commodity. Despite the fact that the true value of such housing is negligible, it continues to bring considerable income to its owner with impunity. A butcher who sells rotten meat would be severely punished, but giving poor people a rotten dwelling is permitted by law. For the sake of the enrichment of a handful of egoists, it is considered possible to allow horrendous mortality and the spread of various diseases that cause heavy damage to our society.
11. Sprawling cities are gradually destroying the adjacent green areas that previously adjoined their border regions. As a result, residential areas are increasingly moving away from the natural environment, which leads to a deterioration in hygienic conditions.
The more the city grows, the more damage is done to "natural conditions". By "natural conditions" we mean the presence of a sufficient number of necessary factors for the development of living beings - the sun, space, greenery. Uncontrolled sprawl has robbed cities of their basic psychological and physiological lifeblood. A person who has lost contact with nature pays a heavy price for this - he is subject to disease and degeneration, he loses his health and becomes decrepit for the sake of the illusory joys of city life. All of this has become especially widespread in the last century.
12. The location of residential buildings in cities is in conflict with the requirements of hygiene
The main task of urban planning is to provide the necessary conditions for the full development of people. The health of each person depends on how he is provided with satisfactory "natural conditions". The sun, which controls the growth and development of all living things, must freely penetrate into every dwelling, pierce it with its rays, which have such a beneficial effect on people's lives. A green environment should fill the dwelling with air purified from dust and harmful gases. Houses should be freely placed in space. It should not be forgotten that the feeling of space is an important psycho-physiological factor, and crowded streets and yards have a detrimental effect on health and negatively affect the general condition of people. The Fourth CIAM¹ Congress, held in Athens, proclaimed the following postulate: sun, greenery and space are the three essential elements of urban planning.
_________
¹ CIAM - International Congresses on Contemporary Architecture. A society that brought together architects from different countries in order to update architecture and fight against academicism, eclecticism and routine. Created in 1928. Main organizers: Le Corbusier (France), Gideon (Switzerland), Sert (Spain) and Gropius (Germany). (Note per.).
The adoption of this postulate makes it possible to correctly assess the current situation and develop proposals for the future from truly humane positions.
13. The most densely populated areas of cities are located in the most unfavorable zones (poor orientation, areas shrouded in fog of industrial emissions, gas, areas prone to flooding, etc.)
There are still no laws that determine the optimal conditions for modern housing, conditions that not only ensure a normal standard of living, but also contribute to the constant prosperity of man. Land plots for building residential buildings are allotted arbitrarily as cities grow, guided by random, and sometimes base interests. A government official will not hesitate to lay out the routes of new streets in such a way that the newly built houses will deprive thousands of apartments of the sun. Unfortunately, individual members of the municipalities have been given the opportunity to place new working quarters in areas previously considered unsuitable for habitation due to their excessive dampness. Such an official believes that the northern slope, which has never attracted anyone, is a damp, smoky place, an accumulation of smoke, gas and harmful industrial emissions, quite a suitable place for settling the so-called alien labor force - workers who come to work from other countries and cities. ..
14. A good, airy dwelling (houses of the rich) is located in the best areas, protected from adverse winds, in places with magnificent views of the surrounding landscape - lake, sea, mountains, etc. These areas are generously illuminated by the sun
The most favorable areas usually house the luxurious homes of the wealthy. This proves that, having material resources, people instinctively strive to settle in good places, arranging their home in the best natural conditions.
15. Such a distribution of housing is considered normal and legal by the city authorities and is called zoning.
Zoning is the division of a city plan for the purpose of locating its various functions and individual residents. It involves the distribution of urban space according to various types of human activity: housing, industrial and commercial centers, territories and structures intended for recreation.
But if, by virtue of the established order, the dwellings of the rich are separated from the dwellings of the poor, which is dictated by the "sacred right" of the propertied to create for themselves the best and most healthy living conditions, we categorically condemn this. There is an urgent need to change some established practices. It is necessary to ensure that an irreconcilable law prescribes certain living conditions for each person, regardless of his financial situation. It is necessary to achieve urban planning legislation that excludes such a situation when entire families of urban residents are deprived of light, air and space.
16. It should be established that houses built along highways and at their intersection are not suitable for housing due to noise, dust and harmful gases.
If such a ban is introduced, then separate zones for housing and transport routes will have to be allocated. Then residential buildings will not be "soldered" to the street with the help of sidewalks.
They will be placed in a clean environment, in silence, among the sun and air. Roads should be divided into slow traffic roads for pedestrians and high-speed traffic roads for mechanical vehicles.
These roads will each perform their own functions, approaching the dwelling only in the necessary places.
17. The traditional placement of residential buildings along the streets provides normal living conditions for only a minimal part of the residents
The traditional placement of residential buildings along the streets leads to their forced placement.
Parallel or diagonal highways, intersecting, form square, rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal quarters. Being built up, they form "blocks". The need to illuminate the central space of such blocks gives rise to the creation of courtyards of various shapes and sizes. Unfortunately, legal regulations allow owners, who are hungry for maximum profits, to reduce the area of these yards to truly scandalous sizes. All this leads to such a sad result: one of the facades, whether facing the street or the courtyard, is oriented to the north and thus always deprived of the sun, and in the rest, given the cramped streets and courtyards and the shadows falling from the nearby buildings, also half devoid of sunlight. Studies have shown that in cities, about half or one third of the facades of residential buildings do not receive sunlight. In some cases, this ratio is even more catastrophic.
18. Placement of household facilities arbitrarily
The life of individual families takes place in apartments, and each of them strives to create the most favorable conditions for itself and achieves this to the best of its ability. In addition, each family needs a number of public buildings, which are, as it were, a continuation of the dwelling. These are shopping centers, medical institutions, kindergartens and nurseries, schools, as well as institutions and territories designated for sports and recreation - "health complexes". The positive significance of these collective institutions is indisputable, but their necessity has not yet been adequately realized by the masses of city dwellers. Their construction is just beginning and is carried out fragmentarily, without taking into account the general needs of the population.
19. Schools, as a rule, are located near transport routes and are significantly removed from residential areas.
School buildings, built according to special projects in accordance with certain requirements of the educational process, are usually poorly located in urban areas. They are built away from home, exposing students to the dangers of the streets. In addition, children under 6 years of age and adolescents over 13 years of age are deprived of a number of pre- and post-school institutions so necessary for their overall development.
The location of residential buildings in cities does not provide the opportunity for the proper placement of the necessary childcare facilities. Properly placed children's institutions not only protect children from the dangers of the street, but also provide a full-fledged education and development of their physical and moral qualities.
20. Suburban areas are built up without a plan and are not provided with convenient connections with the city
The suburban areas of modern cities are degenerated suburbs and settlements. Ancient cities in the past were military settlements surrounded by defensive fortifications. Outside the defensive walls, settlements arose along the access roads. They housed the surplus population that had no place within the city walls. People settled here at their own peril and risk, exposing themselves to all sorts of dangers.
Over time, the settlements, in turn, were built up with defensive walls, incorporating sections of roads branching off from the city. This caused the first damage to the clear outline of the plan of the original city.
A characteristic feature of the era of machine technology is the creation of suburbs, haphazardly built up by the territory, where there is located what does not find a place in the city, where all kinds of "risky" enterprises are created and small craft workshops are located, the products of which, as a rule, are considered unimportant and temporary. In fact, many of these workshops sometimes grow to gigantic proportions. Suburbs are a kind of foam beating against city walls. In the XIX and XX centuries. this foam turned into a sea tide, and then into a flood. She seriously compromised the fate of the city and the possibility of its regular expansion. Being a place of settlement for the casual and poor people suffering from poverty and many other misfortunes, the suburban areas have become a life-giving ground for various disturbances and unrest. Suburbs often occupy areas many times larger than the cities themselves. And from these flawed suburbs, for which the problem of distance - time does not find a solution, they are trying to create garden cities. Ghostly paradise, reckless undertakings!
The suburbs are an urban vice that has spread all over the world and is the ugliest in America. They represent one of the worst curses of our age.
21. An attempt was made to include the suburbs in the administrative boundaries of cities
Too late! Attempts to include suburbs in the administrative boundaries of cities were made with great delay. The law on the right of private property stood in their way as an insurmountable obstacle. The expropriation of a property located in a vacant lot, on which its owner has built several barracks, a warehouse or a workshop, is associated with great and numerous difficulties. Sometimes these territories are sparsely populated and hardly exploited, and the city is forced to provide the suburban area with all the elements of equipment and services: build roads, conduct underground communications, create transport links, lighting, build schools, medical facilities, etc. Due to the small number of population, living in these areas, the costs of developing the latter do not justify themselves and may threaten the city's budget. Whenever city authorities set themselves the task of redevelopment and urban planning of suburban areas, they are faced with such great financial difficulties that they are unable to overcome them.
If city governments want to ensure the harmonious development of suburban areas, they should begin to exercise leadership in this matter even before the birth of the suburbs.
22. Suburbs are often low-value development areas that do not create the necessary conditions for development
Clumsily put together shacks, plank barracks filled with a wide variety of materials, a refuge for beggars and vagabonds - this is what the suburbs are. Their ugly and dreary appearance is a disgrace to the cities they surround. The taxes collected from the semi-poor population are meager amounts that do not make up for the cost of improving the suburbs, so their maintenance places a heavy burden on the main population of the city. The suburbs are the dirty fronts of the cities; they come out by numerous streets on the main highways connecting the cities with each other, breaking and making dangerous movement along them. From an airplane, they look like a web of randomly scattered buildings and streets; they make a very unsightly impression on people arriving in cities by rail.
Must be demanded
23. From now on, the best urban areas should be allocated for residential areas, taking into account optimal topographic and climatic conditions, parts that are most illuminated by the sun and adjacent to green areas
The cities that exist today were built without the desire to create favorable conditions for the population. History shows that their gradual development took place naturally, in accordance with the requirements of the time, and that cities not only grew, but were sometimes rebuilt within their territories.
The era of machine technology, which grossly violated the established order for centuries, led cities to chaos. Our task is to put things in order in the development of cities by developing projects designed for their gradual reconstruction. The development of residential areas and the problem of creating new types of apartments are tasks of paramount importance. The best territories should be reserved for the habitation, and if, through indifference and greed, they have been brought into a bad condition, every necessary effort should be made to restore them to full order. To create the best conditions for housing, a number of requirements must be met. It is necessary that when placing the dwelling, the following should be carried out simultaneously: picturesque perspectives should open from the windows of the apartments; areas should be with clean air, protected from winds and smoke, slopes with optimal orientation. It is necessary to use the existing green spaces as much as possible, restore them, and create new ones.
24. The choice of residential areas should be determined by the requirements of hygiene
The state of many cities does not meet modern, legally defined hygiene requirements. But establishing a diagnosis and recommending ways to solve a problem is not enough; it is necessary that the authorities take the necessary measures to rectify the situation. In the name of public health, entire city blocks must be destroyed. Some of these quarters - the result of premature speculation - should be demolished to the ground; others of historical value, having monuments of culture and art, should be partially preserved. Everything that is of artistic and historical value must be saved, and that which is in a threatening position and represents a danger is ruthlessly destroyed.
Just putting the dwelling in order is not enough; it is necessary to create its continuation outside the residential buildings in the form of sports grounds and facilities that are organically included in the master plans of cities.
25. Depending on the natural conditions of the site and accordingly designed residential buildings, the necessary population density should be determined.
The population densities of cities should be established by law. Depending on the specific conditions, the densities can be different: in one case, the cities will be freely placed on the terrain, in the other, they will be built compactly. Determination of population densities is a highly responsible mission for the governing bodies.
With the beginning of the era of machine technology, a spontaneous and uncontrolled sprawl of cities began, which was the cause of the misfortune of many of them. The creation and development of populated areas should be based on a deep study of specific conditions. The design of the city should be carried out for a long term, for example, for 50 years. The project should determine the optimal population size. The 50th anniversary plan should provide for the rational distribution of the population, taking into account the time-distance factor. With the establishment of the population and the size of the urban area, the density of its settlement will be determined.
26. Minimum insolation should be set for each apartment
By studying solar radiation, science has determined its beneficial and sometimes detrimental effects on humans. The sun is the source of life. Medicine has established that tuberculosis spreads where there is no sun; it demands that people live in the best "natural conditions" possible. For several hours a day, the sun should penetrate into every apartment, even during the unfavorable season. Society will no longer tolerate whole families being deprived of the sun. Any project of a residential building in which one of the apartments will be turned entirely to the north or deprived of the sun due to shading must be categorically rejected. Designers must be required to submit an illumination diagram showing that even during the Earth solstice, each apartment will be illuminated by the sun for at least 2 hours a day. Otherwise, the project should not be eligible for implementation. Introducing the sun into a dwelling is a new and indispensable duty of an architect.
27. The construction of residential buildings along transport routes should be prohibited
Transport arteries, that is, the streets of our cities, do not meet the requirements of our time. Various streams flow into them: in one case it is the movement of pedestrians, in the other - the movement of public transport - buses, trams and faster - cars and trucks, constantly interrupted by stops.
Sidewalks, created in the era of horse traction in order to protect pedestrians from carriages and carts, in our time of high mechanical speeds do not meet their original purpose. The entrances of many houses in the cities face directly into these dangerous places; an endless number of windows of residential buildings look out onto noisy and dusty streets filled with noxious gases emitted by heavy traffic of mechanical transport.
This provision requires radical changes: pedestrian speeds of 4 km/h and mechanical speeds of 50-100 km/h must be separated. The dwelling should be removed from mechanical speeds, which should be allocated to special routes.
28. It is necessary to use the possibilities of modern technology for the construction of multi-storey buildings
In each era, buildings were built using the technical capabilities of their time. Up until the 19th century. the houses had load-bearing walls only of stone and brick, and the interfloor floors were wooden. 19th century was transitional and was marked by the introduction of profiled metal structures. And finally, in the XX century. monolithic reinforced concrete and all-metal structures appeared. Prior to this truly revolutionary innovation in the field of building construction, the height of residential buildings did not exceed seven floors. These restrictions do not exist today. Buildings reach 65 or more floors. Now, as a result of a serious and thorough analysis, it is necessary to determine the height of urban development for each individual case.
To determine the required height of modern residential buildings, one must proceed from the task of choosing good viewpoints from windows, providing clean air and maximum insolation, the possibility of creating in the immediate vicinity a number of necessary public facilities - schools, children's and medical institutions and playgrounds, which are both would be a continuation of the dwelling. High-rise buildings can best meet all these requirements.
29. Placing high-rise buildings at a considerable distance from each other will free up land for the creation of large green areas
Such houses must necessarily be located at a sufficiently large distance from one another, otherwise they will significantly worsen the living conditions in them. Gross mistakes in this respect were made in the cities of both Americas.
The development of cities, including the erection of private buildings, must be carried out in accordance with a given program. A sufficiently high building density should be ensured so that the necessary public buildings can be built, which are an extension of the dwelling. Establishing the density will allow you to calculate a reasonable population and then determine the size of the territory required for the city.
The most responsible duty assigned to the state authorities is to determine the ratio between the built-up and free territories, the reasonable placement of residential buildings, private buildings and their continuation in the form of public facilities. The authorities must determine the size of the urban area in the future and prevent its expansion. All this should be expressed in the issuance of a law on the development of urban areas.
Thus, from now on, the development of cities will be strictly regulated within the limits determined by law, provided that ample opportunities are provided for the manifestation of private initiative and the imagination of the artist.
"Plan Voisin" (1925) - an experimental project for the radical reconstruction of Paris, which in 1925 was presented by Le Corbusier at the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts. The Voisin plan provided for the construction of a new business center of Paris on a completely cleared area; for this it was proposed to demolish 240 hectares of old urban development. Eighteen identical skyscrapers-offices of 50 floors each were located according to the plan freely, at a distance from each other. High-rise buildings complemented the horizontal structures at their foot - with the functions of all kinds of service and maintenance. At the same time, the built-up area was only 5%, and the remaining 95% of the territory was allocated for highways, parks and pedestrian zones. Illustration from the book: Le Corbusier. La Ville radieuse (1935).
A fragment of the Plan Voisin with a multi-level transport interchange in the city center. Illustration from the book: Le Corbusier. La Ville radieuse (1935).
Rest
Results of observations
30. As a rule, free territories are never enough
There are still free territories in the cities. These are lands miraculously preserved to our time: parks surrounding royal and princely palaces, gardens belonging to wealthy citizens, and shady boulevards created on the site of destroyed defensive fortifications. Over the past two centuries, these reserve areas have been rapaciously built up. Thus, the historically formed massifs that served as the "lungs" of the city were destroyed. In place of lawns and green areas, residential buildings were erected and stone pavements were made.
In the past, green spaces were the property of a limited circle of privileged people. Now a different social approach to solving this problem is needed. Green spaces should receive another purpose - to become a direct or distant continuation of the home. Direct, when they surround residential buildings, and remote, when they are large arrays at a distance from them. In both cases, their purpose is similar: to be places for collective recreation for young people, games, fun and walks.
31. Sometimes free territories are quite extensive, but poorly located and therefore difficult to access for the population
If there are several vast free territories in a modern city, then they are either located far from the central districts, or these are gardens adjacent to rich mansions located in the city center.
In the first case, green areas are far from the place of residence of the bulk of the population and can only be visited on Sundays. Therefore, they do not have the necessary and beneficial effect on the daily life of citizens, which takes place in detrimental conditions.
In the second, they are inaccessible to the general public, therefore their function is reduced only to decorating the city, but not to fulfill the role of an everyday and useful continuation of the home.
Thus, in both cases, the most important problem of public hygiene remains unresolved.
32. Free spaces located on the periphery of cities do not contribute to improving the living conditions of the population living in the central overcrowded areas
The task of urban planning is to develop rules that provide favorable living conditions for the population, not only by improving their physical condition, but also moral, to make life joyful. After sometimes hard, physically and nervously exhausting work, people should have a sufficient number of hours of rest. These free hours, which will undoubtedly increase due to the introduction of machine technology, must take place in favorable natural conditions.
Therefore, the creation and protection of green areas of cities is the most important measure that contributes to the improvement of people's health. This is one of the main tasks of urban planning, to which the state authorities should pay maximum attention.
The problem of housing can be satisfactorily solved only if the correct proportions between built-up and free territory are ensured.
33. The rare sports facilities built near residential areas are often temporary, built on sites intended for future residential or industrial development. Hence their constant restructuring and transfers to new places
Showing concern for the leisure of the population, sports societies create various complexes in temporarily free territories, but the construction is carried out unofficially, so their existence is short-lived.
The time allotted for recreation and entertainment can be divided into three categories: daily, weekly and annual. Everyday free time should be spent in the immediate vicinity of the dwelling. Weekly allows you to travel outside the city and within the region. The annual rest or vacation time can be spent traveling outside the city and region.
Thus, reserve green areas should be provided: 1) in the immediate vicinity of the dwelling; 2) in areas adjacent to cities; 3) in different parts of the country.
34. Territories that could be developed for weekly rest are often poorly connected to the city.
After choosing a territory for organizing a weekly vacation in suburban areas, the problem of organizing transport communications arises. This problem should be solved at the initial stage of planning work. Various types of transport links should be used - the laying of highways and railways, the development of river routes.
Must be demanded
35. From now on, green areas should be created in every residential area to accommodate children's playgrounds and sports grounds, as well as places of recreation for adults and the elderly.
This can be ensured only if there is a law on the distribution of urban land. The law should provide for the possibility of ensuring optimal conditions for the population of cities. Thus, population density, percentage of vacant land and built-up area will vary according to function, location and climatic conditions. The buildings under construction will be located among the surrounding green areas. Residential and green areas should be mutually positioned so that they are easily accessible. The general urban planning scheme of populated areas should change: agglomerations will gradually turn into green cities. Unlike what is the case in garden cities, green spaces should not be divided into numerous private properties, but should be single areas intended for collective use as an extension of the dwelling.
Gardening, which was of no small importance in the creation of garden cities, will continue in this case. A certain amount of land will be allocated for vegetable gardens, divided into numerous individual plots; but their cultivation, irrigation or watering will be organized on a collective basis, which will facilitate their maintenance and will contribute to an increase in productivity.
36. Slum neighborhoods should be demolished and turned into green spaces. This will improve the sanitary condition of the neighborhoods adjacent to them.
Just a general knowledge of hygiene is enough to be able to identify slums and dilapidated quarters. These neighborhoods must be razed to the ground. The territories liberated from them must be turned into parks, which will be the initial stage in improving the living and sanitary conditions for neighboring quarters. But it may turn out that the territory freed from dilapidated buildings is convenient for placing a number of structures necessary for the life of the city. In this case, a reasonable urban planning proposal will determine the feasibility of setting up an appropriate structure, which will be taken into account when drafting the regional planning and the general plan of the city.
37. New green areas should be designed for a specific use: placement of kindergartens, schools, youth centers and other public buildings necessary to serve the population
Green areas that will house residential buildings will be intended not only to decorate the city. First of all, they will perform a utilitarian function. The greenery will house public buildings: nurseries, pre- and post-school facilities, youth clubs, cultural and sports facilities, reading and play pavilions, sports fields, jogging tracks or outdoor swimming pools. They will be a continuation of the dwelling, and therefore their creation should be provided for by the "law on the distribution of urban land."
38. Weekly rest hours should be spent in specially equipped places for this purpose - in parks, forests, sports fields, stadiums, beaches, etc.
So far, nothing or almost nothing has been created to organize the weekly rest of the population of cities. For this purpose, vast areas in suburban areas will be reserved and landscaped. Necessary and convenient transport links will be provided with these places. This is not about simple clearings surrounding residential buildings and planted with trees. These should be real prairies, forests, natural or artificial beaches, located on alienated and carefully protected lands and intended for recreation and entertainment of city residents. Such territories exist at short distances to each city, and they can become quite accessible to the population, provided that a well-established transport connection is created.
39. Parks, sports grounds, stadiums, beaches, etc.
The recreation program should include a variety of activities: collective and individual walks in picturesque places; various sports - tennis, basketball, football, swimming, weightlifting; spectacles - concerts, arrangement of green theaters, sports competitions and games. At the same time, a number of specialized facilities should be provided: rationally organized vehicles for delivering the population, hotels, camp sites, taverns, youth camps. An important task is to organize the supply of all places of recreation with food and drinking water.
40. You should also make reasonable use of existing natural factors - rivers, forests, hills, mountains, meadows, lakes, the sea, etc.
The problem of distances, taking into account the development of vehicles, will not play a decisive role. In this regard, it is sometimes more expedient to place recreation areas at some distance. When developing the territory for recreation areas, it is necessary not only to take care of the existing preserved landscape, but also to restore the places that were damaged.
Local authorities are entrusted with the most important task of social significance - to organize recreation in such a way that it really restores the physical and moral strength of people. Efficient use of free time will strengthen the health and moral qualities of the urban population.
Work
Results of observations
41. In our time, the places of application of labor are irrationally located in the system of urban development. These are industry, craft workshops, administrative and commercial buildings.
In the past, the dwelling and the craft workshop were located close to each other, and sometimes formed a single whole.
The rapid development of machine technology disrupted these harmonious conditions. In less than a century, it changed the face of cities, destroyed centuries-old traditions, and gave rise to a new kind of nameless and ever-moving workforce.
The development of industry largely depends on the possibility of delivering raw materials and organizing convenient sales of finished products. Therefore, industrial enterprises literally bred along the routes renovated in the 19th century, railways and on the banks of rivers, using riverboats as transport. Desiring to exploit the proximity of workers and the existing supply base, industrialists located their enterprises in existing cities or in their immediate vicinity, neglecting the misfortunes that these plants and factories would bring to the city dwellers.
Plants and factories located in the middle of residential areas filled them with smoke and noise. If they were located at a considerable distance from residential areas, then this forced the workers to make daily tedious and long journeys in difficult conditions and thus deprived them of part of their rest time.
The violation of the patriarchal conditions of the organization of labor caused unimaginable disorder, created problems that no one is able to solve to this day, and gave rise to the great vice of our era - the nomadic way of life of the working population.
42. Links between places of residence and work have been disrupted, necessitating long journeys
The most important factor of modern life - the connection between housing and work - turned out to be broken. The suburbs are flooded with workshops, factories and large industrial enterprises, which are constantly and boundlessly expanding, capturing more and more new lands.
Cities were overpopulated, unable to accept new residents. As a result, in the suburban areas, villages began to spring up, which are a collection of squalid residential buildings and leased plots.
The labor force, not associated with certain industries, constantly changing jobs, day and night, winter and summer, is on the move, disorganizing and overloading urban transport.
The unsystematic movement of people leads to large losses of time.
43. Business of urban transport during peak hours has reached the limit
Public transport - suburban trains, buses and subways - operates at full capacity only four times a day. During peak hours, the traffic becomes extremely intense. The population is forced to spend significant funds to pay for transport, which causes them great inconvenience, which is aggravated by fatigue after a working day.
The operation of public transport is associated with significant costs. The money paid by passengers does not make up for operating costs, so the maintenance of transport is a heavy burden on the city budget.
Contradictory solutions are proposed to overcome the current situation: should we create the best conditions for organizing transport or take care of passengers? We must choose! In one case, it is proposed to reduce the territory of cities, in the other - to expand them.
44. The lack of long-term plans leads to uncontrolled urban sprawl, land speculation, etc. Industry is located spontaneously, not obeying any rules
Almost all urban and suburban lands are owned by private individuals. The industry is also in the hands of private companies, subject to crises and other phenomena that disrupt their activities.
Nothing has been done to subordinate the development of industry to logical regularity. On the contrary, its development took place spontaneously, bringing profit to individuals and causing inconvenience to the entire population.
45. Administrative buildings are located in business centers. These centers are located in the best parts of the cities and are provided with a developed transport network, so the spirit of private profit and land speculation reigns in them. These areas also do not have rational development plans.
The development of industry causes the growth of the administrative and commercial apparatus, and in this area, too, everything develops haphazardly and unplanned. It is necessary to buy and sell, to ensure the contacts of factories with suppliers, with clients and with other enterprises. All this necessitates the creation of an administrative and managerial apparatus and, consequently, the construction of special buildings equipped with sophisticated equipment. This equipment in a dispersed form is quite expensive. The concentration of management in large organizations would be much more rational, since it is easier to interconnect individual industries, it is more convenient to establish links with other organizations. In addition, the working conditions of employees would be improved. This would be facilitated by good illumination of the premises, central heating, air conditioning, maintenance - expedition, post office, telegraph, etc.
Must be demanded
46. Distances between places of work and residence should be kept to a minimum
To do this, it is necessary to carefully develop a plan for locating places of application of labor and begin to relocate enterprises.
The location of industrial enterprises in a ring-like fashion around large cities could be convenient for a number of entrepreneurs and contribute to their enrichment, but such a principle should be abandoned due to the fact that this will worsen the living conditions of the majority of the population and lead to excessive crowding of cities.
Industrial enterprises should be moved to the routes of movement of raw materials and built along highways and railways and rivers. Transport routes have a linear extended character, so industrial cities should not be concentric, but linear.
47. Industrial areas should be separated from residential areas, and the space between them turned into green space
Industrial cities should be built along canals, highways and railways, or sequentially along the three listed paths. The city will become linear rather than concentric. In this case, residential areas will be built in parallel with industrial enterprises and expand as they grow. They will be separated by a green zone.
From now on, housing will be created in the middle of nature, it will be completely protected from noise and dust, while remaining close to the place of work, which will eliminate long daily journeys and allow people to use their family hearth more. Development will be carried out in three types of residential buildings: individual houses, usually built in garden cities, individual houses with small plots, and, finally, apartment buildings with advanced services that provide comfortable living.
48. Industrial zones should be built along railways, canals and highways
Increasing speeds of mechanical transport require the creation of better transport arteries or the reconstruction of existing highways, railways and canals. Reconstruction should be carried out taking into account the new location of industrial enterprises and the dwellings for workers being built along with them.
49. Handicraft production directly serving the population must be located in specially designated areas within the city
Handicraft production differs from industrial production and should be located in close proximity to the consumer. Its source is the very life of the city. Printing and jewelery production, tailoring and fashion are created and inspired by the very atmosphere of city life. These are enterprises that directly serve the daily needs of urban residents, so their location can be allowed in the central parts of cities.
50. The business center, which houses public and private administrative offices, should be well connected to residential and industrial areas, as well as to handicraft enterprises located in or near the central parts of cities.
Administrative institutions have become important in modern life, so their placement in the city should be given special attention. The business center should be located at the intersection of transport arteries that connect residential and industrial zones, places for the location of handicraft enterprises, administrative offices, individual hotels, railway stations and airports.
Motion
Results of observations
51. The modern street network in cities is a web of streets that has developed around the main roads, which began in ancient times. In European cities, the creation of these roads dates back to the Middle Ages, and sometimes even to antiquity.
Some walled cities or centers of colonization already had clear and compact plans at their inception. First, defensive fortifications of strictly geometric outlines were applied to the drawing; the main roads approached the fortifications. Inside, these cities also received a clear layout.
Cities of another, more common type were created at the intersection of two large roads passing through the whole country, or at the intersection of several radial roads. The roads are closely related to the topography of the area and therefore often had a winding track. The first houses were built along these roads. This was the beginning of the creation of the main streets, to which, as the cities grew, numerous streets and lanes of secondary importance adjoined.
The directions of the main streets have always been dictated by certain geographical conditions. Over time, they could be rebuilt and restored again, but still they always retained the historical trace.
52. Large streets were built for pedestrians and horse-drawn vehicles. Today they do not meet the requirements of mechanical transport
Ancient cities were surrounded by walls for protection. Therefore, they could not expand due to population growth. It was necessary to arrange housing economically in order to accommodate the maximum number of people. This explains the close network of streets and lanes with many entrance doors. This approach to development led to the creation of a system of small blocks with narrow facades of houses facing the streets and courtyards-wells.
Subsequently, when the walls were moved to new frontiers, avenues and boulevards were created outside the historical core, within which the existing web of streets was preserved. These areas, which no longer meet the requirements of modern times, continue to be preserved.
They are still a system of small residential neighborhoods that are the product of the historical development of cities. Facades of houses overlook narrow streets and yards. The streets have frequent intersections. The street network created in ancient times is completely unadapted to the speeds of modern urban transport.
53. The size of the streets of old cities do not meet the requirements of modern high-speed transport and hinder the development of these cities
The problem of transport arose from the impossibility of matching the natural speeds of a pedestrian or horse with the mechanical speeds of cars, trams or buses. Their confusion is the cause of thousands of conflicts. The pedestrian moves under constant threat to his life, while the mechanical transport is forced to slow down endlessly, while remaining a deadly threat to pedestrians.
54. Distances between street intersections are too small
In order to develop the normal speed of mechanical transport, it is necessary to turn on the motor and gradually increase its speed. Braking should also not be instant, as this spoils the motor. Therefore, a certain distance must be traveled before the vehicle stops completely. But street intersections in modern cities, located at a distance of 100, 50, 20 and even 10 meters from one another, do not favor the normal movement of mechanical transport. These distances should reach 200-400 meters.
55. The width of the streets is insufficient. Street widening is a very expensive and not always successful business.
There can be no uniform standard sizes for the width of streets. It all depends on the traffic intensity and traffic capacity of the street. The historically developed main streets of cities, whose routes in ancient times were determined by geographical and topographical conditions and into which an infinite number of streams enter from secondary streets and lanes, have always been loaded with traffic. Usually these streets are narrow, and their expansion is sometimes very difficult and inefficient. Therefore, the reconstruction of old cities should pursue more cardinal goals.
56. With the introduction of mechanical transport, the street network of cities turned out to be irrational, devoid of proper routing, flexibility, diversity and modernity.
The organization of traffic in modern cities is a very complex matter. Highways should be used for moving cars from one building to another, as well as similar movement of pedestrians. Buses and trams must move at the speeds determined by the timetable; trucks - make numerous trips along specified routes; part of the transport is to cross the city in transit.
It would seem that each of these routes should have its own route, providing normal and unhindered traffic. Therefore, the task is to carefully study the current state of the movement, to develop proposals that allow us to correctly solve this problem.
57. Highways designed for representative purposes may or may not have been a serious hindrance to traffic.
What was permissible and even magnificent in the days of pedestrians and carriages may today be the cause of constant inconvenience and danger. Some avenues, built to create a monumental perspective, culminating in a monument or some kind of front building, are today dangerous places for traffic delays and traffic jams. These urban compositions should not be oversaturated with modern mechanical transport, for which they were not created and to whose speeds they can never be adapted.
Traffic is the most important function of a modern city. Therefore, the transport program requires a serious and scientific solution capable of regulating its flows, creating the necessary redundant directions, achieving the elimination of excessive congestion, traffic jams and the inconvenience associated with them.
58. In most cases, with the growth of populated areas, the railway network becomes a serious obstacle to urban reorganization of cities. Railway tracks cut through residential areas, disrupting the natural contacts of the urban population
And in this matter, events developed too quickly. The railroads were built before the boom of industrial development they themselves generated. Currently, railway tracks have arbitrarily penetrated cities and cut through residential areas. Crossing the railroad track is not allowed, so it separates the residential areas of cities, disrupting the necessary contacts of the population.
In a number of places this creates serious difficulties in the development of the urban economy. Therefore, the primary task of urban planners is to immediately solve this problem by moving railway junctions outside the cities, which will ensure the normal functioning of urban life.
Must be demanded
59. It is necessary to carry out thorough statistical studies of the traffic flows of cities and their surrounding areas and develop new urban traffic patterns, taking into account the traffic intensity on individual highways.
Movement is a vital function of cities. Its current state should be expressed in graphs, which will especially clearly reveal stressed nodes, which is necessary for the development of project proposals. It will be possible to provide for the separation of traffic flows for pedestrians, cars, freight and transit vehicles in the projects. Each highway must receive characteristics and dimensions that ensure its transport function. In addition, special attention should be paid to crossings and junctions of streams.
60. Roads and highways should be classified according to their purpose and built in accordance with the speeds and nature of the traffic passing through them.
In ancient times, there were single streets along which pedestrians and riders moved simultaneously, and only at the end of the 18th century. after the introduction of carriages and carriages, the first sidewalks appeared. In the XX century. like a disaster, a mass of mechanical transport fell on the old streets - bicycles, motorcycles, trams, cars with their high speeds. The staggering growth of some cities, such as New York, has caused huge traffic congestion in a number of areas.
The time has come to take decisive action to remedy the situation, which is becoming disastrous. The first reasonable measure would be to separate the flow of pedestrians and vehicles on the busiest highways. Secondly, freight transport should be directed along roads specially designated for this purpose. Thirdly, this is the creation of high-speed highways for transit transport and secondary roads for non-intense urban traffic.
61. Busy road junctions must be dealt with in different levels
Cars in transit should not linger at all intersections, uselessly slowing down traffic at them. The best way to solve this problem would be to have a level crossing at each intersection. For ease of movement, large transit highways at certain distances must have branches for connections with ordinary city streets.
62. Pedestrian must be able to move on roads free of vehicles
This will be a complete reconstruction of urban traffic, the most reasonable, opening a new page in the history of urban planning.
Such a requirement regarding the organization of movement in its significance can only be compared with the prohibition of the northern orientation of the dwelling.
63. Streets should be differentiated depending on their purpose: residential streets, walking streets, transit highways, main arteries
Streets must perform certain functions according to their different purposes. Residential streets and areas allocated for public use require the creation of certain conditions.
In order to ensure silence, peace and well-being of the dwelling and its “continuation” in nature, mechanical transport should be taken to special highways. Transit highways will communicate with city streets only at their entry points. The main arteries providing communication with the surrounding areas and other cities will be the most important communication roads. In addition, walking streets will be allocated, where the limited speed of transport will not disrupt the movement of pedestrians.
64. Expressways must be fenced off with green areas
Transit and express roads will be separated from the main urban highways and, therefore, from residential areas. But still they need to be protected by a dense green barrier.
Historical heritage of cities
65. Historical architectural values (individual monuments or town-planning ensembles) must be preserved
The life of the city is a historical phenomenon that passes through the centuries, the memory of which remains architectural monuments. These monuments give the city a unique character. These are precious witnesses of the past, which over time acquire historical and spiritual value. In addition, these structures depict the features of the highest rise in the artistic creativity of the people. Monuments are part of the world's historical heritage, so every effort must be made to preserve them today and for the future.
66. They will be preserved if, being national cultural values, they will also be of interest as monuments of world culture.
In assessing the artistic value of monuments, it is necessary to distinguish true values from works of little value. Not everything old is worthy of preservation, therefore, it is necessary to make a selection with great skill and wisdom.
In the event that the interests of the reconstruction of the city suffer from our desire to preserve a number of monuments of past eras, a reasonable solution must be found that reconciles opposing points of view. In the event that we are talking about monuments that are available in several copies, then some of them should be preserved as historical samples and the rest should be destroyed. In other cases, it is advisable to preserve and restore the most valuable part, adapting the rest to the needs of the city. And, finally, in exceptional cases, it is allowed to move monuments that are of great historical and aesthetic value, but interfere with reconstruction work.
67. If the conservation of historical values is associated with the preservation of unsanitary living conditions for the population, then ...
An excessive cult of antiquity must not neglect the laws of social justice. There are lovers and connoisseurs of antiquity who, out of blind admiration for the aesthetic qualities of the latter, advocate the need to preserve a number of picturesque old quarters, regardless of poverty, crowding and diseases that occur in people living in such conditions. In such cases, one must carefully consider and, perhaps, make a compromise and the most wise decision. But in no case should a shanty dwelling that morally oppresses people be preserved.
68. If the demolition of valuable works of architecture is the only possible proposal for solving a transport or other urban planning problem, then in some cases it is necessary to consider the issue of transferring the planned complex or structure to another location
The rapid growth of the city can sometimes put designers in a dead end, from which you can only get out at the cost of sacrifice. Assume that the objects that are an obstacle must be demolished. But if this proposal forces the demolition of genuine architectural, historical or cultural values, then it is better, of course, to try to find a different solution. Instead of eliminating the obstruction that disrupts traffic, you should change the route of the highway and bypass it or lay a tunnel under it. Finally, it is possible to move a complex administrative and transport hub to a new location and completely redesign the highway system in an overstrained part of the city. Ingenuity, imagination, combined with the use of the possibilities of modern technology will always help to solve such problems.
69. Destruction of shantytowns surrounding historical monuments will provide an opportunity to create green spaces
It happens that the demolition of dilapidated houses and shantytowns around a valuable historical monument destroys the color of the environment that has been formed for centuries. This phenomenon is annoying, but inevitable. This situation should be used to create green spaces. In this case, historical monuments will find themselves in a different, sometimes unexpected, but still acceptable environment. But at the same time, the town-planning situation of the adjacent quarters will be much improved.
70. The use of archaic architectural elements to decorate new buildings erected in the area of historical monuments under the pretext of their architectural linkage can lead to detrimental consequences. Such creative proposals are not allowed.
Such methods contradict the experience of history. Never has a return to the past been encouraged, never has man moved backwards. The masterpieces of past eras convince us that each generation thought in its own way, created art and aesthetics, using the best technical achievements of its time in its work.
To slavishly copy the past is to doom oneself to a lie, it is to create in principle a false one, because modern buildings will not be built using ancient methods, and the erection of archaic structures using modern building technology can only lead to a senseless imitation of the works of past eras.
Mixing the old with the new, it is impossible to create a truly ensemble solution that is distinguished by the unity of style. It will be a pure imitation, hindering the perception of a true monument of art, for the sake of which such an unreasonable initiative was taken.
III. Conclusion. Basic provisions of the doctrine
71. Most of the cities studied today are a chaotic spectacle: they absolutely do not meet their main purpose - to satisfy the urgent biological and physiological needs of their population
In connection with the preparation for the Athens Congress, the national sections of the International Congresses of Contemporary Architecture (CIAM) examined 33 cities: Amsterdam, Athens, Brussels, Baltimore, Bandung, Budapest, Berlin, Barcelona, Charleroi, Cologne, Como, Dalat, Detroit, Dessau, Frankfurt , Geneva, Genoa, The Hague, Los Angeles, Latakia, London, Madrid, Oslo, Paris, Prague, Rome, Rotterdam, Stockholm, Utrecht, Verona, Warsaw, Zagreb and Zurich. They give a complete picture of the history of the development of the white race in various climatic conditions and at different latitudes.
All cities testify to the same thing - the introduction of machine technology has violated the existing relative order. None of the cities showed serious attempts to adapt to the new conditions. In all these cities, people are oppressed by everything that surrounds them. In cities, nothing that is necessary for human health and the flourishing of his spiritual life has not been preserved or restored. On these cities lies the stamp of the general crisis of mankind, which is spreading everywhere. The city no longer answers its function - to protect a person, and, moreover, to protect well.
72. This situation, which arose with the beginning of the era of machine technology, is explained by the ever-increasing offensive of private interests
The predominance of private interests, engendered by the lust for personal gain and wealth, is the basis of this deplorable position.
The forces that contributed to the development of machine technology did nothing to prevent the damage caused by it, for which, in fact, no one is now responsible.
For a century, enterprises were built spontaneously. The construction of dwellings and factories, railways, highways and laying of waterways was carried out in incredible haste under the sign of individual money-grubbing, there was no question of any pre-designed plans and thoughtful actions. But today evil happened. Cities are not suitable for human life. The cruel intransigence of individual private interests has given rise to the misfortune of a huge number of people.
73. The inexorable cruelty of private interests has caused a fatal imbalance between the development of the productive forces, on the one hand, and the weakness of state leadership and the impotence of social solidarity, on the other.
Feelings of administrative responsibility and social solidarity are trampled and belittled daily by the constantly advancing and renewing force of private interest.
These oppositely directed sources of energy are in constant confrontation, and when one of them attacks, the second one defends itself. Unfortunately, in this unequal struggle, private interest often wins.
But the victory of evil can sometimes give rise to good. The enormous material and moral destruction of modern cities may eventually lead to the birth of legislative acts on cities, on the basis of which the authorities will acquire the necessary authority to protect human dignity and bear responsibility for the health of the urban population.
74. Despite the fact that cities are constantly being rebuilt, their reconstruction is carried out without a definite plan and control, and also without taking into account modern urban planning science, which is the fruit of the work of highly qualified specialists
The principles of modern urban planning have been developed as a result of the work of a huge number of specialists: builders, doctors, sociologists. They are presented in articles, books, materials of congresses, public and private discussions. But the task is to force the state bodies and representatives of the authorities to be guided by these principles, because they are entrusted with responsibility for the fate of cities. However, these bodies are often quite hostile to bold urban renewal proposals based on modern science.
First of all, it is necessary to convince the governing bodies to act in the right direction. Foresight and energy will help to come to agreed decisions.
75. The city must ensure the spiritual and material freedom of the individual and promote the flourishing of collective activity.
Individual freedom and collective action are the two poles between which human life flows. In all activities to improve human conditions, both factors must be taken into account. If the measures taken fail to meet these often conflicting demands, they are doomed to inevitable failure.
Harmonious satisfaction of both requirements can be ensured only if there is a carefully thought-out program that excludes any random actions.
76. Everything that is created in the city must correspond to the scale of a person
The natural dimensions of a person should form the basis of the scale of everything that is connected with his life and various activities. This applies to the scale of sizes and areas, the scale of distances, set taking into account the natural speed of human movement, the scale of the daily routine, linked to the speed of the daily movement of the sun.
77. The keys of modern urban planning are in four functions: live, work, relax (during free hours), move around
Urban planning expresses the essence of the era. Until our time, it dealt mainly with one problem - the organization of the movement. Urban planners limited themselves to laying avenues and streets that formed residential areas, the development of which was at the mercy of private initiative. This was a narrow understanding of the city planner's mission.
In our time, urban planning is called upon to perform four main functions:
First, to provide a person with a healthy home, which means placing the home in places and in space provided with fresh air and sun, that is, in truly "natural conditions";
Secondly, to organize the places of application of labor in such a way that they turn from places of heavy enslavement into places of natural and joyful human labor;
Thirdly, to provide everything necessary for the organization of free time in such a way that it is spent with benefit and pleasure;
Fourth, to provide convenient links between these places, creating transport networks that can satisfy the population of the city and the requirements of each of its zones.
These functions cover a huge area of activity. Urban planning is a consequence of a certain way of thinking introduced into people's lives as a result of their active and purposeful activities.
78. Urban development projects will determine the structure of each of the sectors that make up the four key functions, as well as their location in the overall city plan.
In order to ensure the implementation of the key functions of urban planning proclaimed by the Congress of Athens CIAM, they must be carried out in life in the broadest and most complete sense of the goal. It is necessary to establish order and classify the conditions of modern life of people, the conditions of their work, the breadth of cultural needs, in order then to create the most favorable conditions for their satisfaction and flourishing.
Pursuing these goals, urban planning will change the face of cities, destroy existing and obsolete contradictions in their life and reveal the necessary opportunities for creative activity.
Key functions should be autonomous, they will be implemented on the basis of data dictated by climate, topography, customs. They will be the basis for the development of territories and the placement of facilities. The development of cities and populated areas should be carried out on the basis of the wide use of advanced technological achievements.
When creating and planning settlements, the vital needs of people and each person individually will be taken into account, and not the selfish interests of private groups. Urban planning should ensure individual freedom and at the same time promote the flourishing of social activities.
79. The cycle of daily human functions - to live, work, rest (recuperation) - will be determined in urban planning, taking into account the maximum saving of time. The center of attention of urban planning and the starting point for determining the size of territories should be housing
At first glance, it may seem that the desire to recreate the “natural conditions” of everyday life is associated with the unrestrained growth of cities on a plane, but in reality this is dictated by the need to regulate the time budget of human activity in accordance with the length of the day, since significant human movements can take away time for rest.
The center of attention of the urban planner is the dwelling, so its placement in the city plan should be consistent with the duration of the day, equal to 24 hours. This measure allows you to accurately distribute people's activities over time and correctly solve urban planning problems.
80. New mechanical speeds have fundamentally changed the urban environment, creating a constant threat to the life of the population, causing endless traffic jams that paralyze urban traffic, as well as deteriorating hygiene conditions
Mechanical transport, due to its high speeds, should have provided great time savings. But congestion and congestion of cars disrupt traffic, being hotbeds of constant danger. Cars are increasingly damaging the health of urban populations. Exhaust gases hovering in the air affect the lungs, and the incessant noise of the engines affects the nervous system. The high speeds of modern motor vehicles have given rise to a love of long-distance travel to picturesque corners of nature. The unbridled desire for long-distance travel disrupted the normal rhythm of family life and, in general, the rhythm of society. People spend long tiring hours behind the wheel, gradually weaning from the most natural and healthy way to get around - walking.
81. The principles for organizing intracity and long-distance travel should be reviewed. It is necessary to classify the existing speeds. Reorganization of zoning in accordance with the key functions of urban planning will create convenient natural connections between zones and a rational network of main highways
Zoning, carried out in accordance with the key functions "to live, work, rest", will streamline the urban areas. The fourth function - the movement should pursue only one goal - to connect the other three in the most convenient way. Thus, a radical reconstruction is inevitable.
The city and adjacent suburban areas should be provided with a network of roads that allows the most efficient use of the capabilities of modern vehicles. All modes of transport should be classified and differentiated, providing each of them with independent paths. A reasonably organized transport network will not disrupt the normal life of residential and industrial areas.
82. Urban planning is a science of three, not two dimensions. High-rise construction will provide the necessary conditions for organizing a modern network of roads and recreation areas through the creation and use of free territories
The key functions of "live, work and play" inside buildings require the provision of three necessary conditions - sufficient space, sun and fresh air. The dimensions of the erected structures depend not only on the occupied territory with two dimensions, but especially on the third - height. Only through high-rise construction will urban planning receive free territories necessary for road networks and for green spaces intended for recreation.
It should be borne in mind that inside buildings the third dimension plays a very important role, referring to vertical movements. As for urban transport, two measurements are used here - mainly movement on the ground, and only in exceptional cases, raising to an insignificant height when flows are decoupled at different levels.
83. The planning of the city should be carried out simultaneously with the drafting of the regional planning. Instead of the usual municipal plans, there should be a single master plan for the city and its zone of influence. The boundaries of the agglomeration will be determined by the radius of economic ties of the city
The initial data of the general plan of the city should take into account the entire complex of territories economically connected with the city. Economic substantiations of the city plan should provide for the stages of its gradual development. Similar work should be carried out in relation to the districts of the region adjacent to the city. This will make it possible to make a correct forecast of the integrated development of the city. Then it will be possible to develop proposals for expanding or limiting individual areas, taking into account the local characteristics of this city and its surroundings. As a result, each settlement will receive a certain place and importance in the system of the economy of the whole country. A scientific approach to planning work will make it possible to establish the boundaries of economic regions. Only in this case can we speak of true urban planning, which ensures an even distribution of resources across the economic region and the entire country.
84. On the basis of a functionally drawn up plan, the harmonious development of the city and all its parts will be ensured. As the urban area grows, free spaces and new networks of streets and highways will organically fit into it.
The creation of the city will be carried out as construction, carried out according to a pre-drawn project based on the instructions of the master plan. People who know how to look ahead will outline the paths of its future development. Their project will provide for the scale of prospective construction, determine the nature of the settlement and determine the boundaries of the future territory.
Built according to a plan linked to the district plan, taking into account four key functions, the city will no longer be a collection of randomly erected buildings. The growth of the city will not create a catastrophic situation, but, on the contrary, will lead it to flourish. The growth of the urban population will no longer be accompanied by a fierce struggle for existence, characteristic of the cities created in the past.
85. There is an urgent need to develop development plans for each city and enact laws to ensure their implementation.
Chance will give way to foresight, the project will replace improvisation. Each project will be drawn up taking into account the district planning plan; Territories will be distributed according to a specific purpose. Work on the implementation of the project will be carried out immediately and in stages. The approved "Law on the distribution of urban areas" will ensure the most favorable implementation of the layout, taking into account key functions, which means the placement of buildings in the best areas and the establishment of optimal distances.
The project should also determine the location of reserve areas for future development. The law will be able to permit or prohibit construction, it will promote the implementation of rational proposals and ensure that they are carried out according to the master plan and always in the collective interest.
86. The design program should be drawn up as a result of scientific research carried out by specialists. It must provide for stages of consistent development in time and space. The program should bring together information about the natural resources of the territories and general topography, as well as economic data, analysis of sociological research and spiritual needs
Buildings will no longer be carried out according to random schemes drawn up by a topographer who randomly placed heaps of houses and land.
It will be a truly biological structure with regularly placed and therefore properly functioning organs. Land resources will be studied and taken into account and general surveys of the area will be carried out in order to identify and make the best use of natural factors. The main transport routes will be laid with regard to their maximum efficiency and equipped according to their purpose. A specially designed schedule will determine the economic development of the city. Immutable laws will ensure the creation of good-quality dwellings, the improvement of working conditions and the prudent use of leisure time.
87. The scale of a person will serve as a measure and a dimensional scale for an architect-urban planner.
After a period of degradation of the fruitless form-creation of the past century, architecture must again be put at the service of man.
No one is capable of fulfilling this mission except the architect, who has excellent human knowledge. The architect must discard illusory projecting and mobilize his creative abilities to create a city that carries true poetry in itself.
88. Housing (apartment) is the fundamental core of urban planning. Combining a group of apartments into a single organism forms a residential unit of the appropriate size
If the cell is the primary element in biology, then the family hearth is the cell of the social environment. The creation of this hearth, which has been dominated by cruel games and speculation for more than a century, must turn into a humane activity. The hearth is the primary stage of urban planning. It makes life easier for a person, guards his daily joys and sorrows. It must be permeated with the sun, saturated with fresh air and receive its continuation outside the dwelling in the form of a series of public institutions.
In order to best organize domestic and cultural services (food, education, medical care, recreation), it is necessary to group the apartments into housing units of the appropriate size.
89. The creation of Residential Units will allow for the establishment of optimal links within the city between housing, place of work and facilities intended for recreation.
The main task that should attract the attention of the city planner is the creation of optimal living conditions. It is also necessary to significantly improve the conditions of production activities. Office buildings, enterprises, factories must be equipped with the necessary set of household appliances that can ensure the fulfillment of the second function - labor.
And finally, you need to constantly take care of the third function, which involves healthy rest, hardening of the body and spirit. All these responsibilities rest with city planners.
90. In order to fulfill this responsible task, it is necessary to widely use the advanced achievements of modern science, technology and building art.
The era of machine technology gave rise to new capacities, which became one of the reasons that violated the usual order in cities. And in spite of this, it is precisely the powers of our age that must contribute to their decisive reorganization. New technical means brought with them new methods of work, facilitated work and gave rise to updated measurement scales. In the history of architecture, they opened a truly new page. Modern construction is characterized by a variety of building types and an unprecedented complexity of design solutions. In order to fulfill the tasks assigned to him, the architect must resort to the help of numerous specialists at all stages of the work.
91. The scale of new construction will depend on the sum of political, social and economic factors
By itself, the introduction of the Urban Development Act and the introduction of new construction methods will not solve the problems of urban renewal. To implement this, three factors are required: decisive, far-sighted and firm power, purposefully aimed at the implementation of the developed, design solutions; a population that is aware of the need for urban reorganization and persistently achieves this; finally, a strong economic position, allowing to undertake and carry out significant work.
But sometimes circumstances may develop in such a way that, in an extremely unfavorable political and economic environment, there is an urgent and urgent need for a decisive expansion of the scale of construction. In this case, the authorities are forced to mobilize all the necessary resources and start major planning and construction work.
92. In these circumstances, architecture becomes paramount
Architecture determines the fate of the city. Architecture determines the structure of the dwelling, the fundamental principle of the urban plan. The quality of the built dwelling, its ability to bring joy to people depend on the architect. Architecture groups dwellings into large complexes based on precise calculations.
Architecture determines the location of free spaces in advance and indicates the location of structures. It creates continuations of dwellings, indicates the most favorable places for industrial enterprises and recreation areas, develops schemes of transport networks and thus ensures the establishment of contacts between different zones. Architecture is responsible for the organization of favorable living conditions and the beauty of the city. It is she who points out the ways of creating and reconstructing populated areas, rationally planning the territory, achieving optimal living conditions for the population, harmoniously and reasonably distributing the elements of improvement and consumer services. Architecture is the foundation of everything.
93. The sheer scale of urban refurbishment and beautification work required and the existence of countless private land holdings are two antagonistic circumstances.
It is necessary to immediately begin to carry out huge reconstruction work, since all the ancient and modern cities of the world are characterized by the same vices generated by similar reasons. These works can be carried out only if the program being implemented is part of a single project of the district planning and the master plan of the city. The implementation of the project can be carried out fragmentarily, provided that part of the territory is immediately built up and subsequent work is postponed to a more distant period. Numerous private properties must be expropriated and properly documented. At these moments, the vile speculative operations are dangerous, which often paralyze in the bud the largest activities aimed at the public good.
Expropriation under the conditions of private ownership of land and buildings is a complex problem for the city, its surroundings, as well as on the scale of larger territories occupying entire regions.
94. The cruel contradictions noted by us are the most difficult problem of the era. The task is to solve it in the shortest possible time by legislative means, ensuring the possibility of rational development of the territory and the creation of the necessary conditions for the full satisfaction of the vital needs of the individual and the whole society.
For many years, all over the world, any attempt at urban renewal was shattered by the ossified laws of private property. Land, the entire territory of the country must be freely provided for urban planning needs at a fairly established cost. When it comes to the general interest, land should be subject to expropriation without any restrictions.
Peoples suffer many hardships and misfortunes because they were not prepared for the invasion of new technology and the consequences associated with it, which disorganized personal and social life. Disregard for urban planning laws is the cause of anarchy that reigns in the development of cities and the location of industry. The absence of urban planning legislation has led to the devastation of villages, to the reckless overpopulation of cities, to the excessive concentration and chaotic distribution of industry. The dwellings of the workers turned into slums. Nowhere has anything been done to protect the people. The result is catastrophic, and the situation is similar in almost all countries. This is the sad result of a century of spontaneous development of machine technology.
95. Private interest must be subordinated to the interests of the collective
Being left to himself, a person will inevitably find himself crushed by the difficulties that fall upon him, which he is not able to overcome alone. Forced to constantly unquestioningly obey the will of the collective, he loses his individuality. Personal law and collective law must be combined with each other, enrich each other and harmonize their capabilities by combining the positive and constructive qualities inherent in each of them. Personal right has nothing to do with greedy private interest. The latter, which serves to enrich the minority and dooms the masses of people to a miserable existence, is worthy of the most merciless eradication. The private interest must be everywhere subordinated to the collective interest. And then every individual will have every opportunity to satisfy his aspirations for the well-being of the family hearth and the beauty of the populated areas.
IV. Brief information about international congresses on contemporary architecture
1928 Creation of CIAM
Thanks to the generous hospitality of Mrs. Helene de Mandro, a group of innovative modern architects met in 1928 in Switzerland at the Sarraz Vaux castle.
After discussing the pressing issues of architecture and building according to a program previously developed in Paris, they decided to unite in order to help raise architecture to the level of its tasks. Thus, an association was created, which received the name "International Congresses of Contemporary Architecture" - CIAM.
Sarraz Declaration
The undersigned architects, representing national groups of contemporary architects, declare complete unity of views on the basic concepts of architecture and on the nature of their professional duties.
They argue that the activity called "construction" is an elementary human activity, inseparably linked with the development of life. The purpose of architecture is to express the spirit of the era. They declare the need to develop a new architectural concept that would satisfy the material, spiritual and aesthetic needs of modern life.
Taking into account the profound upheavals caused by the era of machine technology, they believe that the changes that have taken place in the field of social life and the economic system must, with fatal necessity, lead to corresponding changes in architecture.
They united in order to achieve a harmonious unity of everything that is characteristic of the modern world, and in order to return to architecture its true meaning. They believe that architecture should serve the benefit of man in an economic and social sense. Only in this case architecture will be saved from the suffocating dominance of the academies.
Convinced of their views, they declare that they are united in order to put their ideas into practice.
General line of development
The development interests of each country demand an inseparable unity of architecture with plans for the development of the national economy.
The pursuit of increased productivity and "profitability", which is considered an axiom of modern life, should not be pursued only by the commercial goals of maximizing profits, it should be seen as the need to obtain products in sufficient quantities to fully meet human needs.
True profitability in the construction business can only be achieved as a result of the rationalization of the production process, the introduction and normalization of industrial methods in the creation of a work of modern architecture.
Instead of resorting to degenerate artisanal methods of construction, architecture must immediately take advantage of the enormous advantages of modern technology, without fear that this will lead to the creation of works that are in many ways different from those built in past epochs.
urban planning
Urban planning is the development and improvement of various populated areas and territories intended for the development of material, spiritual and aesthetic life in all its individual and collective manifestations.
It covers the design and construction of cities and rural areas.
Urban planning cannot serve purely aesthetic purposes. In essence, this is a functional phenomenon.
The three main functions that urban planning should deal with are: 1) to live; 2) work; 3) rest. Its main tasks should be considered: a) placement on the territory; b) organization of traffic; c) development of legislative documents.
The current state of populated areas does not provide a rational combination of the above three main functions. It is necessary to re-plan the territories of the corresponding three zones and determine the ratio of the areas of built-up and free territories. Building densities and transport networks should also be reviewed. Instead of the meaningless distribution of land plots carried out as a result of sale, speculation and private transactions, it is necessary to carry out their redistribution on the basis of the new land legislation. The new redistribution of land based on the requirements of modern urban planning will ensure the fair satisfaction of private and public interests.
Architecture and public opinion
It is necessary that architects influence public opinion and acquaint it with the means and possibilities of modern architecture.
Academic education perverted the tastes of the general public, and the pressing issues of housing construction were not touched upon at all. The public is poorly informed, so consumers are not even able to formulate their requirements for a modern home. In addition, housing issues for a long time were out of sight of most architects.
General knowledge of housing does not exceed the theoretical baggage received by people in elementary school. It is necessary that the new generation have a clear idea of what a complete and healthy home should be. Prepared in this way, a new generation of future clients of the architect will be able to present their demands on the vital problems of the dwelling, which for too long have been neglected.
Architecture and State
Architects, filled with a strong desire to work for the benefit of modern society, believe that the academies hinder social progress, bowing to antiquity and ignoring the problems of housing in the name of purely decorative and ceremonial architecture.
By taking over education, the academies compromise the title of architect. In view of the fact that the bulk of state orders for design pass through the academies, the latter prevent the penetration of a new spirit into architecture.
Without the introduction of modern ideas in the business of construction and architecture, it is impossible to update and raise them.
CIAM Goals
The goals of CIAM are to formulate the tasks of the creative development of modern architecture, to introduce these ideas into the technical, economic and social spheres, to achieve the realization of the ideals of modern architecture.
1952. City family hearth. Publisher Lund Humphrey. London (in English)
1954. City center. Publisher Ulrico Hep. Milan (in Italian)
a) Hesiod; 2) "Theogony"; b) Spinoza; 1) "Ethics"; c) Kant; 4) Critique of Pure Reason. d) Nietzsche; 3) "Thus spake Zarathustra";
16. Correlate philosophical positions and their authors:
a) materialism; 2) Marx; b) cynicism; 3) Diogenes; c) hedonism (philosophy of pleasure); 4) Epicurus. d) idealism; 1) Hegel;
17. Compare philosophical positions and their characteristics:
a) anthropocentrism; 4) man in the center of the world. b) theocentrism; 3) God is at the center of the world; c) pantheism; 2) God is everywhere; d) atheism; 1) denial of God;
18. Set the sequence of historical and philosophical eras:
c) patristics; a) scholasticism; d) revival. b) education;
19. Establish the sequence of the emergence of philosophical schools:
a) Pythagoreans c) sophists; b) Epicureans; e) Neoplatonists. d) existentialists;
20. Establish the sequence of occurrence of philosophical trends:
b) atomism; a) epicureanism; d) realism; e) empiricism. c) encyclopedism;
21. Set the sequence of occurrence of philosophical trends:
b) sophistry; d) stoicism; a) patristics; e) realism. c) psychoanalysis;
22. Set the sequence of the emergence of philosophical trends:
d) neoplatonism; c) scholasticism; b) humanism; a) Marxism; e) neopositivism.
23. Set the sequence of occurrence of philosophical trends:
c) patristics; b) scholasticism; a) Cartesianism; d) positivism; e) phenomenology.
24. Correlate the philosophical directions and their characteristics:
a) skepticism 2) the philosophy of doubt; b) epicureanism; 3) philosophy of pleasure; c) patristics; 4) the philosophy of salvation. d) existentialism; 1) philosophy of existence;
(question 9) 8. Philosophical maxims
1. Which philosopher is credited with saying "You cannot step into the same river twice"?
a) Heraclitus of Ephesus;
2. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "Man is the measure of all things"?
c) Protagoras;
3. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "I believe, because it is absurd"?
e) Tertullian.
4. Which philosopher argued that "evil is the absence of good"?
b) Augustine the Blessed;
5. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "Philosophy is the servant of theology"?
b) Thomas Aquinas;
6. Which philosopher is credited with saying “Knowledge is power”?
a) F. Bacon;
7. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "I think - therefore, I exist"?
c) Descartes;
8. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "Freedom is a conscious necessity"?
a) Spinoza
9. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of another, as an end, and never - as a means"?
10. Which of the philosophers owns the statement "God is dead!"?
11. Which of the philosophers owns the statement: "That which can be said at all, must be said clearly, but about the same that cannot be said, one should be silent"?
a) Wittgenstein;
12. The representative of which school could not belong to the statement: "The world is in constant motion and development"?
b) Eleatics;
13. The representative of what philosophical direction could not have owned the statement: “The names of objects and phenomena are just names that do not really exist”?
d) realism.
14. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Philosophy takes first place among other sciences and is the basis for them"?
15. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Christian morality is the basis for the development of society"?
16. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "The ruler must always be guided by moral principles in order to be an example to his subjects"?
c) Machiavelli;
17. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Arbitrariness is a manifestation of freedom"?
b) Spinoza;
18. Which of the philosophers could not have said: “By the end of my life, I realized that I had learned a lot”?
b) Socrates;
19. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Our world is the only one of all possible worlds"?
c) J. Bruno;
20. Which of the philosophers could not have said: "The soul dies with the body"?
c) Plato;
21. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Knowledge of the world occurs through the knowledge of God"?
22. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Man's freedom lies in the fact that he is free to do as he pleases"?
23. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "Before the existence of the state, people lived equal and happy"?
24. Which of the philosophers could not belong to the statement: "A person should treat others as a means to achieve his goals"?
(10, 11 questions) 9. The doctrine of being. Movement and development, dialectics
1. Ontology - this teaching :
c) about being as such;
2. Which of the ancient philosophers was the first to formulate the concept of "being"?
c) Parmenides;
3. Which of these philosophical concepts arose first?
d) beginning.
4. Aristotle put forward a dual concept of understanding being:
a) passive matter and active form;
5. Development, accompanied by the appearance of a more perfect quality compared to the previous one:
d) progress;
6. Objective connection between individual states of types and forms of matter in the processes of its movement and development:
a) causality;
7. Determinism is a doctrine:
c) about the universal regular connection, the cause-and-effect conditionality of phenomena;
8. Materialists claim that:
c) matter exists absolutely, it is uncreated and indestructible, infinite in the forms of its manifestation;
9. Materialists claim that matter is:
b) objective reality given to a person in sensations;
10. Idealists claim that:
a) the fundamental principle of the world, nature, existence is the spiritual principle;
11. Pantheism - this:
a) a doctrine that denies a personal God and brings him closer to nature, sometimes identifying them;
12. Hylozoism - this:
b) a doctrine that recognizes "life" as an inalienable property of matter;
13. What is the beginning in materialistic philosophical concepts?
c) matter;
14. What is the beginning in idealistic philosophical concepts?
15. An irreversible, unidirectional and regular change leading to the emergence of a new quality is:
d) development;
16. Fundamental concepts reflecting the most essential, stable and recurring connections and relations between reality and cognition:
17. The essence of any objects of the world is manifested:
d) in interaction with other objects.
18. The form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of its existence, the sequence of changing states in the change and development of all material systems:
19. The form of existence of matter, characterizing its extension, structure, coexistence and interaction of elements in all material systems:
b) space;
20. The main interpretations of space and time include:
a) substantive; b) relational; e) subjective-idealistic.
21. The main interpretations of the category of matter include:
a) substrate; b) corpuscular; c) continual;
22. From the point of view of the continuum interpretation, matter is something:
c) having spatio-temporal characteristics;
23. The universal form of the existence of matter is:
in motion;
24. The main types of interaction of elements at the level of inanimate nature (specify all options):
b) gravitational and electromagnetic; c) energy and information;
25. A significant, stable and recurring relationship is:
26. Uneven flow is inherent in:
d) historical time.
27. The materialism of the French educators-encyclopedists was:
b) mechanistic;
28. Feuerbach's materialism was named:
d) anthropological;
29. The reduction of the higher forms of the motion of matter to the lower ones is called:
d) reductionism;
30. The reduction of all forms of movement (including biological, etc.) to mechanical is called:
c) mechanism;
31. Objective idealism recognizes the following proposition:
e) the world of visible things is only a reflection of the real world of perfect archetypes that exist eternally and unchangingly.
32. What law of dialectics can be figuratively illustrated with a spiral?
d) negation of negation.
33. What law of dialectics is clearly illustrated by the table of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev?
b) the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
34. The main laws of dialectics are (indicate all correct options):
a) the law of unity and struggle of opposites; c) the law of mutual transition of quality and quantity; d) the law of negation of negation;
35. Progress and regress are two forms:
b) development;
36. The laws of dialectics do not include the law:
b) identity of matter and consciousness;
37. Dialectics - this:
a) the doctrine of universal connections and laws of development of nature, society, thinking;
38. Complete the paired categories of dialectics:
b) reason consequence d) essence - phenomenon
39. Establish the sequence of occurrence of interpretations of being:
c) being as One; a) a creative being and a created being; d) the existence of the world as a "clockwork". b) being as existence;
40. Set the sequence of occurrence of philosophical categories:
b) the beginning (arche); a) life; d) substance. c) existence;
41. Set the sequence in the historical development of materialism:
b) spontaneous materialism; a) mechanistic materialism; d) anthropological materialism. c) dialectical materialism;
42. Establish a sequence in the development of idealism:
c) the objective idealism of Plato; e) the scholastic realism of Anselm of Canterbury. d) rationalism of Descartes; b) Kant's transcendental idealism; a) Hegel's absolute idealism;
43. Set the sequence of occurrence of ontological interpretations:
a) the world of ideas and the world of shadows; b) the earthly city and the City of God; d) the world as a mechanism. c) the world as an objective reality;
44. Establish a sequence in the development of dialectics:
b) spontaneous dialectics (Heraclitus); c) idealistic categorical dialectics (Plato); d) absolute idealism (Hegel). a) dialectical materialism;
45. Set the correspondence of the definition of being to one or another philosopher:
a) being is the essence and existence of man; while the existence ... 2) J.-P. Sartre; b) God and only He is truly existing; permanently abiding... 1) Bl. Augustine; c) to be is to be perceived through the senses; feeling and ... 3) J. Berkeley.
46. Set the correspondence of the understanding of time to a particular philosophical concept:
a) space and time are special entities that exist on their own; 2) substantial; b) space and time are special relationships between objects and processes; 1) relational; c) space and time are forms of perception of the world; 3) subjective-idealistic.
47. Correlate these interpretations of being with philosophical schools:
a) In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and empty, .. 2) Christianity; b) emptiness; the presence of an infinite number of indivisible particles; .. 3) atomists. c) motionless, infinite, indivisible; permanent; .. 1) Eleatics;
48. Establish the correspondence of the interpretation of being to the teachings of one or another philosopher:
a) the being of nature, in reality, is non-being, “other”; genuine.. 4) Plato. b) being is an objective reality, independent of human consciousness; .. 2) Marx; c) being is the eternal self-development and self-movement of the absolute idea; .. 1) Hegel; d) the being of things consists in their perceptibility. 3) Berkeley;
(question 12) 10. The problem of consciousness in philosophy
1. Consciousness is considered as a property of highly organized matter, in the philosophical direction:
c) dialectical materialism;
2. Consciousness is considered as a complex software product in:
b) cybernetics;
3. "Unconscious" in modern philosophy is:
a) phenomena and processes in the human psyche that they are not aware of, but affect their behavior;
4. Unconscious, by Z. Freud, there are:
c) "primary drives" in order to obtain the greatest pleasure;
5. According to Freud, "I" and "It" are in a relationship:
b) constant conflict;
6. The unconscious in philosophy - this:
a) phenomena and processes in the human psyche that they are not aware of;
7. The philosophical concept of reflection refers to the phenomenon:
d) self-consciousness;
8. Consciousness arises, functions and develops in the process:
b) human interaction with reality;
9. Choose the correct answer:
b) consciousness (in the form of self-consciousness) arises at 2-4 years of age;
10. The most important condition for the emergence of consciousness in a person is:
b) communication with other people;
12. For the first time, the act of self-consciousness as a condition for the reliability of knowledge of the world was considered by:
c) Descartes;
13. In what era did consciousness begin to be considered as a function of the human brain to reflect reality?
d) Enlightenment.
14. Hegel believed that consciousness:
c) autonomously from matter;
15. The first to unite consciousness and psyche:
16. reflection property :
d) it is a global property of matter.
17. From the point of view of vulgar materialism:
c) consciousness is a substratum secreted by the brain;
18. Human consciousness differs from the psyche of vertebrate animals:
a) the presence of abstract thinking and speech;
19. Highlight the three most characteristic features of the language:
a) constructive (a tool for expressing thoughts); b) reflective (instrument of knowledge); e) communicative.
20. What happened to a person before - thinking or language?
c) at the same time;
21. Human consciousness differs from the psyche of animals:
c) the ability to reflect, i.e. self-knowledge;
22. From the point of view of structuralism, human consciousness is a product of:
a) speech activity;
23. Establish the sequence of evolution of reflection in living nature:
e) opening and closing of flowers in plants. c) irritability in an amoeba; a) unconditioned reflexes in animals; b) conditioned reflexes in animals; d) human consciousness;
24. Establish the sequence of occurrence of interpretations of consciousness:
d) consciousness - soul. c) consciousness is a divine gift; b) consciousness is a property of the human body; a) consciousness is a function of the brain to reflect reality;
(13, 14 questions) 11. Theory of knowledge. Philosophy of Science
1. Epistemology - this teaching:
d) about the essence of knowledge, about the ways of comprehending the truth;
2. Cognition in modern philosophy is mainly considered as (specify the most correct answer):
d) the practice-driven process of acquiring and developing knowledge.
3. The absolutization of the role and meaning of sensory data in philosophy is associated with the direction:
d) sensationalism;
4. Deduction - this:
a) a logical path from the general to the particular;
5. Induction - this :
c) the ascent of knowledge from private, single facts to generalizations of a higher order;
6. The method of cognition in philosophy and science, when thought moves from general provisions to particular conclusions:
b) deduction;
7. A form of thinking that reflects the extremely general regular connections, sides, signs of phenomena, fixed in the definitions:
8. Empiricism - this:
b) direction in the theory of knowledge, which considers sensory experience as a source of knowledge;
9. Agnosticism - this:
b) a doctrine in epistemology that denies the possibility of reliable knowledge of the world;
10. In philosophy, "agnosticism" is understood as :
c) complete or partial denial of the fundamental possibility of cognition;
11. The highest stage of logical understanding; theoretical, reflective, philosophically thinking consciousness, operating with broad generalizations and focused on the most complete and deep knowledge of the truth, is:
12. In resolving the issue of the cognizability of the world, there are such positions (indicate all the correct options):
a) agnosticism; c) skepticism; d) epistemological optimism;
13. The doctrine that affirms the limited possibilities of man in the knowledge of the world is called:
b) skepticism;
14. Which of the concepts is superfluous in this list?
d) anthropocentrism.
15. Levels of scientific knowledge (specify all options):
a) empirical; c) theoretical;
16. A certain stage of the cognitive process, at which information about the object obtained in sensations and perceptions, remaining in the mind, is reproduced later without a direct impact of the object on the subject - this:
c) presentation;
17. The main forms of living contemplation (in the theory of knowledge as a reflection) do not include:
18. These forms of knowledge do not belong to theoretical knowledge:
b) presentation; e) perception.
19. The type of cognition that is woven into the fabric of the subject's life, but does not have probative power, is called:
c) ordinary;
20. Practice in its functions in the process of cognition is not:
d) a successful replacement for theoretical research and scientific creativity.
21. Since truth does not depend on the knowing subject, it:
b) objective;
22. The concept opposite in meaning to "truth" in epistemology:
b) delusion;
23. A set of approaches, techniques, methods for solving various practical and cognitive problems - this:
a) methodology;
24. What form of scientific knowledge does the concept of an alien origin of life on Earth refer to?
a) a hypothesis;
25. Science as a specific type of spiritual production and social institution arose in the era:
d) New time;
26. The structural components of theoretical scientific knowledge are (indicate all the correct options):
a) a problem d) hypothesis; e) theory.
27. The doctrine that claims that the criterion of truth is recognition in the scientific community is called:
a) conventionalism;
28. In Western European philosophy, rationalism mainly developed on the basis of the method:
c) deduction;
29. In the theory of knowledge, mutually exclusive, but equally provable concepts are called:
d) antinomies;
30. Which of the definitions of rationality is considered in philosophy as the main one?
d) the ability of the mind to holistically embrace nature, society and its own subjectivity.
31. Empirical methods of cognition include (indicate all correct answers):
b) observation;
c) experiment;
d) measurement;
32. Theoretical methods of cognition include (indicate all correct answers):
a) analysis; c) idealization; e) modeling.
33. When using this method, the individual properties of the object under study are replaced with symbols or signs:
c) idealization;
34. Scientific knowledge is different from other knowledge (indicate all correct answers):
a) accuracy; b) validity; c) great predictive ability;
35. In the concept of T. Kuhn, the paradigm is interpreted as:
e) a set of prerequisites recognized at this stage and defining a specific scientific research.
36. In this scientific picture of the world, such general scientific concepts as instability, non-equilibrium, non-linearity, irreversibility are used:
c) non-classical;
37. Science has such basic functions as (indicate all correct answers):
a) worldview; b) methodological; e) predictive.
38. In the earliest stages of human history, forms of knowledge such as:
b) everyday practical; c) game; e) mythological.
39. The main concepts of truth include:
a) conventional; b) pragmatic; d) compliance;
40. The concept of "practice" in philosophy can be denoted by such terms (indicate the most correct answer):
c) experience in general;
41. Set the sequence of occurrence of epistemological installations:
b) “I know that I don’t know anything”; a) "I believe in order to know"; c) “I think, therefore I am”; d) "We live inside the language."
42. Set the correspondence of philosophical schools in relation to their understanding of the significance of science:
a) scientistic directions 4) neopositivism; 5) neo-Kantianism. b) anti-scientist trends 2) existentialism; 1) neo-Thomism; 3) "philosophy of life";
43. Match the term with the definition:
1. Absolute truth c) The truth, which is identical to its subject, which has passed many years of testing. 2. Relative truth b) Incomplete knowledge about the subject (complexly organized natural system); 3. Truth as revelation a) Knowledge penetrating and embracing the infinite spiritual fundamental principle of the universe;
44. What definition of truth corresponds to a historical era?
a) Antiquity 2. Truth is a manifestation of an idea (Plato) or essence (Aristotle); b) Middle Ages 3. God, this is what is true; c) New time 1. Truth is the correspondence of feelings and ideas to facts; d) XX century. 4. Truth is the revealing essence of a thing (hermeneutics).
45. Determine what period of time these or those historical forms of science are inherent in:
a) romantic; 2) XV century. b) classic; 1) XVII century. c) non-classical; 4) XX century. d) post-non-classical. 3) XXI century.
46. What level of scientific research corresponds to the following goal?
a) Empirical 2. Compare the theory with the facts, check the degree of its effectiveness; 3. Get new experimental facts; b) Theoretical 1. Come up with a new theory that would be more effective than the old one; 4. Conduct a theoretical interpretation of the experimental facts.
47. Set the correspondence of the definition to one or another philosophical direction:
a) we cannot fully understand the world, because our senses and reason are imperfect; 1) skepticism; b) science is only a description of the flow of our perceptions and .. 2) agnosticism; c) objects exist only insofar as they are perceived; 4) solipsism. d) philosophy should be a method for solving problems that confront .. 3) pragmatism;
48. Establish the correspondence of the criterion of truth to one or another philosophical direction:
a) consistent judgment in agreement with the scientific community; 3) conventionalism. b) verifiability; 1) neopositivism; c) practice. 2) dialectical materialism;
(Question 15) 12. The essence and nature of man
1. An individual in philosophy is understood as:
b) a generic concept, i.e. expressing common features inherent in the human race;
2. Personality in philosophy is understood as:
c) a stable system of socially significant features, a characteristic of a person as a member of society;
3. When using the concept of "personality", they mean such qualities as:
c) spiritual, social qualities acquired by each person;
4. The unique originality of an individual (appearance, character, habits, features, etc.), as opposed to typical features, - this:
c) personality;
5. The specificity of philosophical anthropology lies in the fact that it;
c) tries to determine the essence of man, the human in man;
6. The term "anthropogenesis" means:
a) the process of historical and evolutionary formation of the physical type of a person;
7. The term "phylogenesis" means:
a) the process of human development from primitive to modern times;
8. The term "ontogeny" means:
e) the process of human development from birth to death.
9. Medieval philosophers claimed that a person:
b) created in the image and likeness of God;
10. This quality in a person was considered the most important in the philosophy of the New Age:
c) reasonableness, rationality;
11. Biologization concepts state that:
b) a person's life is determined by his genotype;
c) purposeful influence of the subject on the object (where another subject may be a special case of the object);
13. The process of socialization means:
c) the assimilation and use of sociocultural experience by a person;
14. The term "culture" means (select the most correct answer):
c) culture is a fusion of methods of activity and the results of this activity in the form of a set of created material and spiritual values;
15. From the point of view of hedonism, the meaning of life is that:
c) life is pleasure, preferably as diverse as possible, here and now;
16. The subject of ethics is:
c) morality;
17. A person's responsibility for his actions is possible only if there is:
a) choice;
18. Complete the missing paired ethical categories:
b) freedom - responsibility d) rights - duties
19. Section of philosophy that studies morality and specific phenomena of social life:
20. Axiology - is the doctrine of:
a) about values, about their origin and essence;
21. The demand for non-violence means, first of all, the rejection of:
a) imposing one's opinion on others;
c) Cicero;
24. Scientific discoveries that contributed to the destruction of the anthropocentric picture of the world:
b) creation of the heliocentric system of the world;
(16 questions) 13. Society and history
1. This philosophical position states that social life is the arena of the struggle for existence:
b) social Darwinism;
2. The most closed social group is:
3. The concept of a class is a key one in philosophy:
c) Marx;
4. The concept that states that the state arises as a result of the division of labor in society,
bears the name:
b) socio-economic;
5. The theory of a single global civilization was formulated:
d) Moiseev.
6. F. Fukuyama in his philosophy proclaimed:
