However, there are universal goals that are mentioned by theorists of different schools: 1) To promote behavior change so that the client can live more productively, experience life satisfaction, despite some inevitable social restrictions.
2) Develop coping skills when faced with new life circumstances and demands.
3) Ensure the effective adoption of vital decisions.
4) Develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships, develop the client's social skills.
5) Contribute to increasing the potential of the individual and its implementation.
| Direction | Goals of counseling |
| Psychoanalytic direction | To transfer into consciousness the material repressed into the unconscious; help the client reproduce early experiences and analyze repressed conflicts; reconstruct basic personality |
| Adlerian direction | Transform the client's life goals; help him form socially significant goals and correct erroneous motivation by gaining a sense of equality with other people |
| Behavior Therapy | Correct inappropriate behavior and teach effective behavior |
| Rational Emotional Therapy (A.Ellis) | Eliminate the client's "self-destructive" approach to life and help develop a tolerant and rational approach; teach the application of the scientific method in solving behavioral and emotional problems |
| Client-Oriented Therapy (C.Rogers) | Create a favorable counseling climate suitable for self-exploration and recognition of factors hindering personal growth; encourage client openness to experience, self-confidence, spontaneity |
| existential therapy | Help the client to realize their freedom and their own capabilities; encourage him to take responsibility for what happens to him; identify factors blocking freedom |
The goals of the consultant and the client are in contact, although each consultant has in mind his own system of general goals corresponding to his theoretical orientation, and each client has his own individual goals that led him to a specialist. Very often wording and reformulation. goals occur in the process of consultation in interaction. Realization of the consultant's goals depends on the needs and expectations of the client.
7. Psychodynamic approach in counseling. Basic techniques of psychoanalytic interviewing. Limitations and practical implications of the psychodynamic approach in counseling.
Psychoanalytic direction The essence of a person is determined by the psychic energy of a sexual nature and the experience of early childhood. The structure of personality is based on three instances: id, ego and superego. Behavior is motivated by aggressive and sexual urges. Pathology arises from conflicts repressed in childhood. Normal development is based on the timely alternation of the stages of sexual development and integration
The psychodynamic direction proceeds from the fact that all the inner life that happens in us is a manifestation of the dynamics of internal impulses in their collision with ideas about reality, the play of the individual or collective unconscious, the manifestation of our inner nature, both realizing our instincts and pushing us to develop and self-actualization. This approach to counseling proceeds from the fact that a person's mental life is only a surface, under which lies the foundation - the unconscious. And the unconscious lives in conflicts, the struggle of internal forces. Authors belonging to different areas of the psychodynamic approach interpret the concept of conflict in different ways, however, all correctional and psychotherapeutic methods are aimed at resolving these conflicts.
Purpose of counseling: help to realize the material repressed into the unconscious; help to reproduce their early experience and analyze repressed conflicts; reconstruct basic personality
Consultant's task- to help the client to realize the dynamics, to realize his unconscious. The work is based on two main directions:
1. Work with the client on awareness of the unconscious (motives for fixing protective mechanisms, behaviors) and the client's acceptance of an adequate and realistic interpretation.
2. Work with the client to strengthen his Ego to build more realistic behavior.
Psychoanalytic interviewing. Rarely is it just asking questions and getting answers. In this interview, methods of psychoanalysis are used, i.e. such technology how:
1. Free association method lies in the fact that the psychologist-analyst invites the client to express any assumptions that appear in the client and reflect his experiences. Statements can be conducted in a random order, they are spontaneous, involuntary. For a consultant-analyst, the following points are important: the content of statements; sequence of statements; blocking statements.
2. Interpretation (interpretation) of dreams. The task of the analytic consultant is to provide interpretations, reveal the latent content of dreams and encourage the client to express free associations associated with the dream, and hence help him to realize the real events of the past and present that caused certain dream pictures.
3. Interpretation. It is an explanation of the meaning of some aspects of his experience or behavior that is unclear or hidden to the client. At the same time, unconscious phenomena become conscious. Interpretation includes three main procedures: 1. Identification (designation). 2. Explanation (actual interpretation). 3. Translation of the interpretation into the language of the client's daily life. Basic rules of interpretation
Go from surface to depth.
· Interpret what the client is already capable of accepting.
· Before interpreting this or that experience of the client, it is necessary to point out to him the protective mechanism underlying it.
4. Resistance Analysis. The main functions of this technique are to ensure that the client is aware of his defense mechanisms and to accept the necessary confrontation in relation to them, given that it is the resistance of the ego that is the main obstacle to the awareness of personal problems.
5. Transfer Analysis. It contributes to the awareness of fixations that determine the behavior and experience of the client in such a way that the figure of the psychologist becomes, as it were, a phantom, on which relationships and experiences associated with emotional traumas of the first years of the client's life are superimposed. The meaning of transference analysis is to discover the true psycho-emotional foundations, fixed forms of behavior, interpret them, and thereby help in their elaboration and elimination.
Limitations of the Psychodynamic Approach: contraindications for work is the presence of mental illness, especially schizophrenia, suicidal thoughts. Important is the desire of the client to work closely with the psychologist, the desire and condition to understand the process of psychoanalysis.
The practical significance of the psychodynamic approach: It is focused on understanding and resolving by a person of internal emotional conflicts that arose in the earliest relationships, which determine the subjective meaning of his subsequent experience and are reproduced in later life. In the process of applying psychodynamic therapy, a space is created for a person in which he begins to “understand” his difficulties.
He gets the opportunity to see how he perceives others and how he reacts to them, to understand the nature of his relationships with other people and his typical methods of solving problems that arise. This approach helps to realize your inner world and look at your own problems with a certain degree of objectivity.
8. Behavioral approach to counseling. Basic behavioral techniques in psychological counseling. Restrictions and practical use behavioral approach in psychological counseling.
Man is a product of the environment and at the same time its creator. Behavior is formed in the learning process. Normal behavior is taught through reinforcement and imitation. Problems arise as a result of poor training
The essence of the approach, which goes back to the theory of Pavlov and Skinner, is to modify behavioral stereotypes through the use of the principles of learning theory. Behavioral and emotional problems are understood as fixed in the result of the encouragement and reinforcement of maladaptive reactions. The task is to eliminate or modify them. main goal correction of influences - providing new conditions for learning, i.e. development of a new adaptive behavior or overcoming behavior, the cat has become maladaptive.
Psychol position. A role model, how he is a ledge in the eyes of the client. Requirements and expectations from the client. Encourage activity, conscientiousness in setting goals, the desire to cooperate and improvise with new forms of behavior.
Techniques: 1. M-ka "negative impact". A compulsive negative habit can be broken by consciously repeating it over and over again.
4. M-ki, put the basics on the groin and negative reinforcement. Puts reinforcements - presenting a stimulus, calling a cl-ta positively coloring an emotional reaction, strengthening the defined behavior of the p-tions. Negative reinforcement - removal of the stimulus, causing a negatively colored r-tion and therefore also leading to an effort to determine the behavior of the r-tions. Even reinforcing behavior tends to self-deplete if it continues for long periods of time." Punishment". Use negative (aversive) stimulus immediately after p-tion, to be extinguished.
Simulation learning- when using this method, the client is asked to observe and imitate the desired patterns of behavior (for example, the behavior of a therapist or a therapist assistant). For this, not only a “living model” (a real person) can be used, but also a “symbolic model”, which can be the hero of the book or an image created by the client’s own imagination. One form of learning by example is self-modelling. This technique consists in the fact that the therapist makes a video recording of successful moments of the client's behavior, and then shows this video to the client.
Role training- the technique used to teach certain types of behavior (for example, training in communication skills) is a kind of role-playing game. The effect of role training is based on a combination of confrontation techniques, systematic desensitization (which helps reduce anxiety) and reinforcement of successful behavior in the form of positive feedback from the therapist. In this technique, the patient and therapist act out a problem situation. This technique can also be used in group therapy. Most often, the patient plays himself, but sometimes the therapist or one of the group members does this, which allows the patient to see his problem from the side, and also to understand that in this problematic situation it is possible to act differently.
Biofeedback- a technique that uses equipment that monitors signs of stress in a patient. As the patient manages to achieve a state of muscle relaxation, he receives positive visual or auditory reinforcement (for example, pleasant music or an image on a computer screen).
Methods of weaning (aversive therapy) is a therapy aimed at making a person with an addiction feel unpleasant about a bad habit. The patient is given medicines, a course of treatment is prescribed, after which he gets rid of drugs, alcohol, etc. After the course of treatment, the patient has unpleasant associations that prevent a return to addictions.
Systematic desensitization At the first stage, the patient is trained in the method of deep relaxation (using hypnosis or anesthesia); at the second stage, the therapist and the patient draw up the so-called “Fear Hierarchy List”, at the beginning of which the situation (or object) that causes the least fear is indicated, at the end - the greatest, with intermediate 8–15 situations; at the third stage, the actual training of desensitization begins. At the same time, the patient, who is in a state of complete relaxation, is invited to mentally reproduce a situation that causes him minimal fear, and try to "get used" to it. In this way, all positions of the “Fear Hierarchy Sheet” are worked out.
implosion therapy a form of behavioral therapy used for phobias and anxiety disorders, including PTSD. The essence of treatment is the intentional immersion of the patient in traumatic memories in order to reintegrate repressed emotions.
Shaping ( behavior modeling) is a multi-step process that modifies an individual's behavior with the help of positive and negative reinforcements.
Autoinstruction method First, the client repeats the self-instructions given by the therapist. Then he independently formulates these self-instructions before the start of the behavioral act. In the process of training, these instructions are gradually internalized, turning into a skill woven into the scheme of action.
Stop Thought Method is a behavioral therapy method designed to eliminate intrusive or anxiety-producing thoughts . Step 1 It is necessary to make a list of unpleasant or disturbing thoughts that are difficult to get rid of. It is recommended to choose a thought from the list and work on it for one week. At the same time, you should not work with several thoughts at the same time. . Step 2 You should close your eyes and imagine a situation in which an obsessive or disturbing thought usually appears. Then you need to “stop” this thought, while allowing yourself to think about what calms or causes positive emotions (mastery of the technique begins from this stage because it is easier to stop the thought if the problem situation is not real, but imaginary). Step 3 At this stage, an external signal is used to stop the thought: it is necessary to set a stopwatch or a timer for three minutes. Then you should close your eyes and focus on the thought that needs to be eliminated. As soon as the timer signal sounds, you should say “Stop!” loudly. Then you should allow yourself to think only neutral or positive thoughts for some time. If the obsessive or disturbing thought comes back, you need to give yourself the “Stop” command again. As soon as the “Stop” command is given, you should switch your attention to neutral or positive thoughts. . Step 4 At this stage, you should learn to control your thoughts without a "reminder" from an external source (timer or tape recorder). The transition to the mental command "Stop" is necessary so that the method can be used without attracting the attention of others. Step 5 On At this stage, you should begin to replace negative and disturbing thoughts with soothing and positive statements or images, because in the absence of such a replacement, the unwanted thought immediately returns. For example, with aerophobia, you can say to yourself: “Airplane is the safest vehicle. I can sit comfortably in a chair and relax.” You can also imagine how the plane arrives safely at its destination. In this case, words and images should be varied, since with prolonged use they become less effective. This can be supplemented with thoughts of something pleasant or relaxation techniques can be used.
Limitations and practical application:
The benefits of behavioral correction, however, will not continue, which allows the control of its effects. M-dy is widely used for various f-max destructive behavior: smoking, alcohol, phobias, stuttering, etc. Many noted the effect when working with children. It is believed that there are practically no age limits for conducting behavioral therapy. Enuresis, fears, sleep and appetite disturbances, irritating attacks are especially susceptible to it.
Counseling approaches
At the heart of the client-centered approach is the belief that each person has an initial desire for maximum social self-actualization. The task of the client and the psychologist is to understand the world of the client as fully as possible and support him during the making of a responsible decision. The psychologist maintains the state of mental health of the client, giving the person the opportunity to come into contact with his inner world.
Existential approach - the word existence ("existence") comes from lat. - stand out, appear. In the course of his existence, a person is faced with the givens of existence: death, freedom, isolation, meaninglessness. They perform a dynamic function in relation to a person - they encourage the development of his personality, his formation. But confronting them is painful, so people tend to defend themselves against them, which often leads to only an illusory solution to the problem.
Cognitive-behavioral counseling - causal relationships are clarified in the sequence of events that determine the behavior of the client; together with the client, achievable goals are selected, alternatives are listed, a specific action plan for the future is formulated.
The core idea of narrative therapy is based on the notion that we make sense of and build our lives around the stories we tell each other and ourselves. Narrative therapy helps people resolve their problems by allowing them to separate their lives and relationships from the knowledge and stories they feel are exhausted; helping them to challenge the ways of life they perceive as dominating, subjugating, and encouraging people to rewrite their life histories in accordance with alternative, preferred (by the people themselves) stories of their identity, and in accordance with the preferred (by the people themselves) ways of life. We all consist of many stories: about who we are and who we are not, that is, it is our selves, about our abilities and achievements, about failures and defeats, about interests and intentions, about work and career, about relationships and connections, about actions, desires, plans, etc. What exactly these stories will be depends on what events we paid attention to, how we connected them together and what meaning we gave them.
Types of psychological counseling
Problem-oriented. The emphasis here is on behavior modification, analysis of the external causes of the problem. The purpose of the work: the formation and strengthening of the client's ability to adequately act in a situation, mastering techniques that improve self-control. Many of the techniques used in this direction are taken from behavioral therapy.
Person-oriented. It is aimed at analyzing the individual, personal causes of the problem, at the process of forming destructive personal stereotypes and at preventing similar problems in the future. The consultant here fundamentally refrains from advice and organizational assistance, as this leads away from the internal, underlying causes of the problem. Many techniques used within this direction are taken from numerous psychoanalytic and post-psychoanalytic currents of Western psychotherapy. First of all, this should include the techniques of Gestaltherapy, humanistic psychotherapy.
Solution-oriented. The emphasis here is on activating the client's own resources to solve the problem. This approach draws attention to the fact that the analysis of the causes of the problem inevitably leads to increased feelings of guilt in the client, which is an obstacle to cooperation between the counselor and the client. Many of the techniques used in this approach are taken from short-term positive therapy.
As a rule, a series of 4-5 letters is needed.
1. A letter always leaves time for a thoughtful and balanced response.
2. The letter enhances the client's reflective analysis of his problem, because much needs to be expressed in a few words, concisely and clearly.
3. One letter from a client can be answered by several consultants, which encourages the client to make an independent choice, making him more free in making decisions about his life.
As practice shows, this form of consultation is effective - in the course of writing a letter, the client has the opportunity to comprehend, reformulate, realize something for himself, and in the course of thinking about the answer, there is an intense inner work. In time, such a consultation lasts several days, sometimes weeks or months.
The strategy of psychological counseling through e-mail (article by S.A. Belorusov - a practicing psychotherapist, consultant at the Center for Family and Childhood of the Russian Academy of Education).
A sign of our time is the acceleration and diversity of communications. The Internet has become an essential segment of human culture over the past 10 years. It provides fundamentally new opportunities not only in the field of information dissemination, but also tools that can be used to resolve psychological problems and alleviate the emotional suffering of potential consumers of advisory services. We will consider one of these instrumental types of assistance, which in world practice has received various names - e-mail - psychotherapy, virtual psychotherapy, cyber therapy, and so on.
For those who are not yet familiar with Internet terminology, we will reproduce the basic concepts. Network (with a capital letter) we call a set of intersecting information channels that can be perceived using a personal computer connected to the telephone network (with a small letter) equipped with a modem. Information in the form of electromagnetic pulses is stored on computers with huge memory reserves - servers. To place their information on the Web, the user can turn to both free server services and a paid option for hosting their resource. User access to the entire volume of information stored on the World Wide Web is carried out through a specialized company - a provider of switching communications and currently costs from 0.5 to 1 dollar per hour. The pastime and activities of a person on the Internet are diverse. "Surfing" is possible - expedient or unsystematic viewing of interesting information centers. It is exciting to create such your own center, which is called a site and can be " business card”, an introductory “home page”, a collection of thematic materials and links to other sites, a polemical forum or even a virtual store. Opportunities for virtual communication are opened up by special programs - “chat rooms”, where there is a lively personal, albeit impersonal - under pseudonyms, interaction on any topic. However, the simplest and least expensive form of networking is e-mail. With known skills, everyone can get a "mailbox" on a free server. This kind of "box" consists of an individual address written in Latin, in which the "@" sign is always present in the middle, as well as access to reading the received answers. The undoubted convenience is that, using the chosen password, access to your mailbox is possible from various computers - from home, from work, from computer salons and from any country. The above knowledge and opportunities are quite enough to become a client of mail psychotherapy. To operate as a consultant, three more factors will be required:
A) Having your own website, which will contain information about the person, methods and forms of counseling;
B) "Promotion" of this site, that is, a kind of network advertising campaign to alert potential consumers about the possibility of such services;
C) Sufficiency of motivation, time and experience to provide virtual psychological assistance.
Inquiry.
The predominant reason for treatment is an emotionally frustrating situation. The most common plot is difficulties in interpersonal relationships. Problems of loneliness and shyness, experience adverse factors environment at work and in the family - these motives dominate over requests related to personal growth or very rarely encountered information requests.
Contingent.
The percentage of respondents by sex was almost the same, which contrasts with our experience of face-to-face counseling, which is ½ dominated by women. Perhaps, the circumstance played a role here, that with the tendency to seek psychological help more often, at present there are about 10 times fewer women users on the Runet than men. The age range of the respondents varied from 15 to 50 years, the average age was from 20 to 30 years.
Process.
Consulting, which was an exchange of messages (messages by e-mail), in most cases was limited to three or four mutual messages of 6-8 lines in size. Correspondence of a larger volume and longer duration occurred in no more than 10% of cases. The pace of the consultative process was quite intense, that is, almost always the exchange of messages took place during the day.
Efficiency.
To evaluate the effectiveness of our activities, a month after receiving the last message from the client, we sent a standardized questionnaire. Analyzing the feedback, it should be recognized that the answers came to less than half of the questionnaires sent out. At the same time, most of them contain a positive assessment of the consultation process that took place, the average score in response to the question about the degree of satisfaction with expectations was 60-70%. There were also answers of frankly disappointing content, they left about 1/10 of the answers received. A significant majority of respondents were negative about the prospect of paying for counseling.
Questionnaire example.
1. How old are you?
2. What is your gender?
3. Have you consulted a psychologist or psychotherapist in the past?
4. Do you use the Internet at home or at work?
5. Is it possible to say that at the time of contacting us, you were really ill?
6. What did you expect when asking for help?
7. Were you disappointed with our response?
8. By what percentage did your expectations come true after receiving a response from us?
10. Do you continue to correspond with us at the present time?
11. If you received a different answer, would you continue to correspond with us?
12. Do you rule out the possibility of turning to us again for help?
1. Internet use?
14. How would you react to the introduction of a system of reasonable payment for psychological services on the Internet?
15. What could you specifically wish us and recommend in our future activities?
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"Novgorod State University named after Yaroslav the Wise"
Institute of Continuing Pedagogical Education
Department of Psychology
Topic: “The role of theory in counseling.
Contribution of different theoretical approaches to counseling”
Test
in the discipline "Fundamentals of Counseling Psychology"
Performed:
student of group 3562
V.N. Novikov
V. Novgorod 2015
Introduction
1. Definition of the concept of "psychological counseling", 3 different authors
2. The main stages of counseling, the tasks of the client and the consultant at each stage
3. Three theoretical approaches to psychological counseling. Review the main idea of the approach and the role of the consultant in the consultation process
4. Requirements for the personality of a counseling psychologist
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Psychological counseling as a profession is a relatively new area of psychological practice that emerged from psychotherapy. This profession arose in response to the needs of people who do not have clinical disorders, but seek psychological help. Therefore, in psychological counseling, we primarily deal with people who experience difficulties in everyday life. The range of problems is truly wide: difficulties at work (dissatisfaction with work, conflicts with colleagues and managers, the possibility of being fired), disorder in personal life and family troubles, poor school performance, lack of self-confidence and self-esteem, painful hesitation in decision-making, difficulties in establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships, etc. On the other hand, psychological counseling, as a young area of psychological practice, does not yet have strictly defined boundaries, a wide variety of problems fall into its field of vision.
1. Odefinition of the concept "ppsychological counseling,3 different authors
Psychological counseling - professional help patient in search of a solution to a problem situation. Professional counseling can be provided by psychologists, social workers, educators or specially trained doctors. Patients can be healthy or sick people who present problems of existential crisis, interpersonal conflicts, family difficulties or professional choice. In any case, the patient is perceived by the consultant as a capable subject responsible for solving his problem. This is the main difference between P. and psychotherapy. From the so-called "friendly conversation" P. to. differs in the neutral position of the consultant. Using transactional terminology, "friendly conversation" is carried out in the Child-Child position, psychotherapy - Parent-Child, and P. to.-- in the Adult-Adult position. The current trend is blurring the boundaries between psychotherapy and P. to. In the 40-50s. professional counseling originated and spread due to social demand, caused by psychological education, psychotherapists, mainly psychodynamic directions, and based on the experience of psychotherapeutic practice (mainly client-centered psychotherapy). In recent years, the partnership approach and counseling experience have enriched psychotherapy.
Psychotherapeutic encyclopedia. -- S.-Pb.: Peter. B.D. Karvasarsky. 2000.
Psychological counseling. A specific relationship between two people in which one person helps the other to help himself. It is a way of communicating that allows the other person to explore their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. to come to a clearer understanding of oneself. and then discover and use your strengths, drawing on internal resources to manage your life more effectively through making the right decisions and taking purposeful actions (definition of the British Association of Consulting Psychologists). psychological counseling consultant
Psychology. AND I. Dictionary-reference book / Per. from English. K. S. Tkachenko. M.: FAIR-PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000.
Psychological counseling is a form of providing practical psychological assistance in the form of advice and recommendations based on a preliminary study of the problems that concern clients, as well as studying the clients themselves and their relationships with people around them.
Dictionary of practical psychologist. Moscow: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998.
2. The main stages of counseling,client tasks andconsultant at every stage
1. Preparatory stage. At this stage, the psychologist-consultant gets to know the client according to the preliminary record available about him in the registration log, as well as according to the information about the client that can be obtained from third parties, for example, from the employee of the psychological consultation who accepted the application from the client for a consultation. At this stage of work, the psychologist-consultant, in addition, prepares himself for the consultation. The working time of a psychologist-consultant at this stage is usually from 20 to 30 minutes.
2. Adjustment stage. At this stage, the psychologist-consultant personally meets the client, gets to know him and tunes in to work with the client. The client does the same. On average, this stage in time, if everything else is already prepared for the consultation, can take from 5 to 7 minutes.
3. Diagnostic stage. At this stage, the psychologist-consultant listens to the client's confession and, on the basis of its analysis, clarifies and clarifies the client's problem. The main content of this stage is the client's story about himself and his problem (confession), as well as the client's psychodiagnostics, if it becomes necessary to clarify the client's problem and find its optimal solution. It is not possible to accurately determine the time required for this stage of psychological counseling, since much of its definition depends on the specifics of the client's problem and his individual characteristics. In practice, this time is at least one hour, excluding the time required for psychological testing. Sometimes this stage of psychological counseling can take from 4 to 6-8 hours.
4. Recommendation stage. The psychologist-consultant, having collected at the previous stages the necessary information about the client and his problem, at this stage, together with the client, develops practical advice to solve his problem. Here, these recommendations are refined, clarified, concretized in all essential details. The average time usually spent to go through this stage of psychological counseling is from 40 minutes to 1 hour.
5. Control stage. At this stage, the psychologist-consultant and the client agree with each other on how the practical implementation of the client's received results will be monitored and evaluated. practical advice and recommendations. Here the question of how, where and when the psychologist-consultant and the client will be able to further discuss additional issues that may arise in the process of implementing the developed recommendations is also resolved. At the end of this stage, if necessary, the counselor and the client can agree with each other on where and when they will meet next. On average, work at this final stage of psychological counseling takes 20-30 minutes.
Summarizing all the above, it can be established that on average, it may take from 2-3 to 10-12 hours to complete all five stages of psychological counseling (without the time allotted for psychological testing).
The psychotherapeutic orientation of psychological counseling can be noted in the counseling model proposed by M.K. Tutushkina and her colleagues, who note that regardless of whether a one-time consultation is carried out or prolonged work is carried out in the form of a series of psychotherapeutic sessions, counseling can be considered as a dialectical process that includes a number of stages (Tutushkina M.K., 2001):
1. Conclusion of a contract between the client, from whom a voluntary consultation order is received, and the consultant, who agrees to provide assistance, providing security and support during the consultation.
2. Clarification of the request and analysis of the problem situation. At this stage, the consultant needs to navigate the client's problem by listening carefully to him, using open-ended questions, paraphrasing and questioning to obtain reliable information. At the same time, the counselor reflects on his own feelings and the feelings of the client, helping him to delve deeper into the problem and approach the setting of a psychotherapeutic goal.
3. Reformulating the problem and setting a psychotherapeutic goal, clarifying the contract. At this stage, as the conditions and situations of the problem arise, the client’s feelings and attitudes towards it are clarified, the essence of the problem is determined, that is, the psychological difficulty that prevents the client from finding a way out of the current situation, while the main thing is the client’s awareness of the essence of the problem from a psychological point of view vision.
4. Finding ways to solve the problem. At this stage, the client's consent to the study of their own psychological difficulties, the search for and acceptance of responsibility for the chosen decisions is necessary.
In the process of counseling, the client undergoes changes that can in one way or another affect his personality and life in general. In any case, the client is given the opportunity to gain new experience, and the deeper he realizes this, the more favorable the consequences of the consultation will be for him, and therefore its effectiveness.
The educational and corrective nature of the orientation of psychological counseling can be noted, in our opinion, in the approach proposed by A.F. Bondarenko, in this regard, at each stage of the counseling process, the psychologist solves the corresponding tasks (Bondarenko A.F., 2000):
1. Initial stage. The stage of entering the situation of psychological assistance. The main tasks of the psychologist at this stage, fundamental for establishing a working relationship, are as follows:
· support of client's motivation to work together;
clarification of the true (realistic) possibilities of psychological assistance and correction of unrealistic expectations;
Expression of readiness to understand, accept the client and provide him with possible psychological assistance;
· trial setting of goals of psychological assistance and determination of indicative terms and results of work;
elaboration, if necessary, of one's own difficulties in work related to possible countertransference or emerging projections.
2. Stage of action and living in a situation of psychological assistance. It includes work with the client's personal material: experiences, relationships, feelings, dreams, value meanings. Possible tasks of a psychologist stem from the logic of his actions and the phenomenology of the client's experiences, among them:
providing emotional response;
elaboration and symbolic satisfaction of certain frustrated needs;
Creation of conditions for insight and catharsis;
reinforcement of the desired course of action (retraining);
Providing conditions for personal reflection and living in a situation of free and responsible choice.
3. Stage of entry into a new experience. This is the stage of personal transformations and attempts to join a different way of living life, free from previous delusions and problems. From this follow the following possible tasks in the activity of a psychologist:
emotional and existential support;
reinforcement of tendencies towards personal reorientations and transformations;
help in coping with personal and situational anxiety caused by changes in the life world;
elaboration of value-semantic or behavioral obstacles that block the implementation of the necessary actions.
4. Stage of entry into everyday life with enriched new experience. This is the final stage of work. Its significance reflects the specific tasks facing the psychologist:
· encouraging the client and emphasizing the temporal boundaries of both the traumatic issue and the end of the consultative process;
analysis of elements of dependence in the behavior of the client and assistance in achieving independence and self-sufficiency;
Redefining and rethinking the situation of psychological assistance as a given opportunity for a person to understand their own motives, values, goals and choices;
Finding the "golden mean" between the tendencies of overprotection, patronage and emotional detachment from the client.
Each of the stages has its own duration. The consequences of counseling can be viewed in terms of the changes that occur in the client's personality and the extent to which they are satisfied with the results of the counseling.
R. Kociunas, referring to V. E. Gilland, proposes the structure of the process of psychological counseling in the form of a systemic model, which focuses on the research and teaching nature of psychological assistance (Kochunas R., 2000):
This system model, covering six closely related stages, reflects the universal features of psychological counseling or psychotherapy of any orientation.
1. Research problems. At this stage, the consultant establishes contact (raport) with the client and achieves mutual trust: it is necessary to carefully listen to the client talking about his difficulties, and to show maximum sincerity, empathy, care, without resorting to evaluation and manipulation. The client should be encouraged to take an in-depth look at their problems and record their feelings, content of statements, non-verbal behavior.
2. Two-dimensional definition of problems. At this stage, the counselor seeks to accurately characterize the client's problems, identifying both the emotional and cognitive aspects of them. Clarification of problems is carried out until the client and the consultant reach the same understanding; problems are defined by specific concepts. The precise definition of problems allows you to understand their causes, and sometimes indicates ways to resolve them. If difficulties, ambiguities arise in identifying problems, then it is necessary to return to the research stage.
3. Identification of alternatives. At this stage, possible alternatives for solving problems are clarified and openly discussed. Using open-ended questions, the consultant encourages the client to name all the possible options that he considers suitable and real, helps to put forward additional alternatives, but does not impose his decisions. During the conversation, you can make a written list of options to make it easier to compare them. Alternatives to problem solving should be found that the client can use directly.
4. Planning. At this stage, a critical evaluation of the selected solution alternatives is carried out. The counselor helps the client figure out which alternatives are appropriate and realistic in terms of previous experience and present willingness to change. Making a realistic problem solving plan should also help the client understand that not all problems are solvable. Some problems take too long; others can only be partially resolved by reducing their destructive, behavior-disrupting impact. In terms of solving problems, it should be provided by what means and methods the client will check the realism of the chosen solution (role-playing games, "rehearsal" of actions, etc.).
5. Activity. At this stage, there is a consistent implementation of the problem-solving plan. The consultant helps the client to build activities taking into account the circumstances, time, emotional costs, as well as understanding the possibility of failure in achieving goals. The client must learn that a partial failure is not a disaster and should continue to implement a plan to solve the problem, linking all actions to the ultimate goal.
6. Evaluation and feedback. At this stage, the client, together with the consultant, evaluates the level of achievement of the goal (the degree of problem resolution) and summarizes the results achieved. If necessary, it is possible to refine the solution plan. When new or deeply hidden problems arise, a return to the previous stages is necessary.
This model of the consultation process only helps to better understand how a particular consultation takes place. The real process of counseling is much more extensive and often does not obey this algorithm. The allocation of stages is conditional, since in practical work some stages merge with others, and their interdependence is more complicated than in the presented scheme.
3. Threetheoretical approaches to psichological counseling.Review the main idea of the approach and the role of the consultant in the consultation process
The importance of theory in psychological counseling, as in other areas of psychological practice, cannot be overestimated. It can be said that an attempt to expertly help another person in resolving his problems without relying on a system of theoretical views is like flying without reference points. In psychological counseling, the role of a map is played by personality theory, which opens up a broad perspective of understanding the client's problems and indicates effective methods for resolving them. Theory helps the counselor to formulate dynamic hypotheses that clarify problems for the client and makes them feel safe when faced with the chaotic, disorganized inner world of some clients. Bramer, Shostrom (1982) emphasize that a consultant who has not mastered the theoretical foundations of his profession, who has not become familiar with the research carried out in this area, will not be able to do anything for the client, except for the use of private technology.
Each theory performs four main functions: generalizes the accumulated information; makes complex phenomena more understandable; predicts the consequences of various circumstances; contributes to the search for new facts (George, Cristiani, 1990).
These functions fit well with any theory underlying counseling practice. The theory helps the consultant to generalize the experience of working with a wide variety of clients, to understand the nature of most of their problems and the forms of manifestation of conflicts, and contributes to the effective application of specific methods. Thanks to theoretical training, the consultant can put forward hypotheses in his practical work and anticipate the results of counseling.
Each consultant "constructs" his own theory on the basis of practice, which most often relies on already known theoretical paradigms, or orientations (psychoanalytic, behavioral-cognitive, existential-humanistic). With the accumulation of experience, the theoretical base is constantly being adjusted, expanded, and strengthened. What determines the choice of one or another theoretical orientation? First of all, it is determined by the consultant's point of view on human nature. Each consultant is free to choose one or another concept as the basis of practice, depending on the characteristics of his personality, worldview, theoretical and psychological sympathies. At the same time, let us emphasize the incorrectness of the statements about the truth of the postulates of any single psychotherapeutic school in spite of other schools. The results of numerous studies show that in practice, with a focus on any direction, it is possible to achieve similar effectiveness of counseling. It is not so much the theory itself that is decisive, but the maturity of the consultant's personality and his professional training, which implies a high integration of theoretical knowledge and practical skills.
Eclectic counseling is currently spreading around the world, which is an attempt to integrate the best aspects of various schools. Of course, this does not mean a set of different theoretical principles, views, or an accumulation of methods and techniques that have proven practical effectiveness, regardless of the context of possible application. Eclectic counseling relies on the systematic integration of several theoretical approaches in an effort to find a common ground and test how the new system "works" in practice. We can say that the creation of an eclectic approach to counseling is the result of all professional activity. Most professionals who have been working in the field of psychological counseling and psychotherapy for a long time create their own theoretical system, usually eclectic, most appropriate to the personality and worldview of each of them.
Most of the theories of counseling were developed exclusively by practitioners, based on their own experience and observations. So far, most of the theories are, to some extent, incomplete, and none of the theories is sufficient to apply to all situations. Even the same theory for the same client at some point may be inadequate. Consultants should choose their theoretical positions carefully and review them regularly.
Some theoretical models are more complete than others, and successful consultants know which theories are superior and for what reasons. Hansen, Stevic & Warner (1986) list five features of a good theory.
1. Clarity, ease of understanding and informativeness. The theory is consistent and consistent.
2. Comprehensiveness. It provides an explanation for a wide range of different phenomena.
3. Certainty and heuristics. It, by virtue of its logic, generates a research plan.
4. Concreteness in the choice of means to achieve the desired result. The theory contains a way to achieve the desired result.
5. Usefulness to its adherents. It provides reference points for research and practical work.
In addition to these five qualities, a good theory is one that does not conflict with the consultant's personal worldview. Shertzer and Stone (1974) believe that counseling theory should fit the counselor like a good suit. Some theories, like costumes, need to be adjusted. Therefore, good consultants recognize the importance of alternating theoretical approaches. Counselors who want to be versatile and effective must learn many counseling theories and know how to apply each without violating its intrinsic integrity (Auvenshine & Noffsinger, 1984).
The value of the theory. Theory is the foundation of successful counseling. It requires the counselor to be careful and creative in the context of deeply personal relationships for the purpose of growth and understanding (Gladding, 1990). Theory influences how client information is conceptualized, how interpersonal relationships develop, how professional ethics are observed, and how counselors see themselves as professionals (Carey, Neukrug, McAuliffe, Pratt & Lowell, 1990). Without a theoretical justification, consultants act haphazardly, by trial and error, and risk taking the wrong step and not achieving results. Brammer, Abrego, and Shostrom (1993) emphasize the pragmatic implications for consultants of carefully crafted theory. Theory helps to explain what happens in the counseling process and also allows the counselor to predict, evaluate and improve the results of their own actions. Theory provides the framework for scientific observation in the counseling process. Theorizing stimulates the production of new ideas and the establishment of a unity of views on counseling. Therefore, counseling theory can be very practical in helping to make sense of counselors' observations.
Boy & Pine (1983) flesh out the practical value of theory by suggesting that, in counseling activities, theory primarily answers the question "how?" rather than "why?", providing a structure within which counselors can operate. Theory-based consultants are better suited to their profession because they have a reason to do what they do. Boy and Pine identified six functions of theory that help consultants in practice.
1. Theory helps consultants to discover the inner unity and interconnection of the various phenomena of life.
2. Theory forces consultants to explore relationships that would otherwise be out of sight.
3. Theory provides guidance to consultants in their work and helps them evaluate themselves as professionals.
4. Theory helps consultants focus on the right information and tells them what they should be looking for.
5. Theory helps counselors assist clients in effectively changing their behavior.
6. Theory helps counselors evaluate both old and new approaches to the counseling process. It is the starting base on which new counseling approaches are built.
"The main criterion for evaluating any theory of counseling is how well it provides an explanation of what happens in the process of counseling" (Kelly, 1988, pp. 212-213). The value of theories as ways of organizing information "depends on the extent to which they correspond to the reality of human life" (Young, 1988, p. 336).
Purity of theory and eclecticism. At the beginning of its history, consulting was a profession in which purity of theory (adherence to one theory) was a condition and an urgent need for consultants looking for work. It was important that counselors could identify their activities in terms of one of less than half a dozen possible theories (psychoanalysis, behaviorism, client-centered approach, etc.). However, with the flood of new theories - cognitive, behavioral, and affective - formulated in the 1960s, the idea of adherence to one specific theory began to lose popularity and significance. The development of microskills training (teaching people skills that are common to all theories of care) has accelerated the move away from narrow theoretical positions. Eclectic consulting has taken their place.
Many professional consultants (about 60-70%) consider themselves eclectic in their use of theory and methods (Lazarus & Beutler, 1993). This means that they use different theories and methods to meet the needs of their customers. As needs change, counselors must move away from one theory and move on to another (a phenomenon called style change counseling). Change of style depends on the level of development of the client (Ivey & Goncalves, 1988). To be effective, consultants must consider how far clients have progressed in their structural development (to use Jean Piaget's terminology). For example, a client who is not environmentally oriented may need a therapeutic approach that focuses on "emotions, bodily sensations, and experience based on momentary experiences ("here and now")", while a client with a more developed level is better a "formal-operational" approach that emphasizes thinking about one's actions will do (Ivey & Goncalves, 1988, p. 410). The main thing is that both consultants and theories correspond to the level at which the clients are, helping them develop as individuals as a whole.
An eclectic approach can be risky if the consultant is not familiar enough with all the processes involved. Sometimes the unintelligible approach of poorly trained consultants is sarcastically called the "electric" approach; such consultants try to apply any and all of the available methods indiscriminately. The problem with electric orientation is that counselors often do more harm than good if they have little or no understanding of what it means to "help" a client.
To overcome this problem, McBride and Martin (1990) propose a hierarchy of eclectic techniques and point out the importance of a solid theoretical foundation as a guide. The lower or first level of eclecticism is actually syncretism. It is an amorphous, non-systemic process of bringing together unrelated clinical concepts. This approach occurs in settings where budding counselors are forced to formulate their own counseling theories without first testing their empirical models in practice. The second level of eclecticism is traditional. It combines "an ordered combination of comparable traits from various sources into a harmonious whole" (English & English, 1956, p. 168). It is more elaborate than syncretism, and theoretically more developed.
At the third level, eclecticism is described as professional or theoretical, or as theoretical integrationism (Lazaurus & Beutler, 1993; Simon, 1989). This type of eclecticism requires consultants to master at least two theories in order to attempt any combination. The problems with this approach are that it assumes a certain degree of equality of theories (which may not be) and the existence of a criterion "to determine which portions or parts of each of the theories to keep or delete" (Lazaurus & Beutler, 1Q93 , p. 382). It differs from traditional models in that the traditional eclectic approach does not require the possession of any theory.
The last level of eclecticism, called technical eclecticism, is presented in the work of Arnold Lazarus (Lazarus, 1967). According to this approach, procedures from various theories are selected and put into practice "without necessarily attributing them to the theories from which they are generated" (Lazaurus & Beutler, 1993, p. 384). The idea is that client work is actually about methods, not theories. Therefore, when the situation permits, after a proper assessment of the client's condition, counselors can use behavioral methods (such as confidence building) in combination with existential methods (such as confrontation in an argument about the meaning of life).
This latter approach is in line with Cavanagh's (1990) approach, which proposes an eclectic approach to counseling as sound. This approach requires counselors to have (1) a sound knowledge and understanding of the counseling theories being applied; (2) a basic unifying philosophy of human behavior that brings together the disparate parts of various theories into a meaningful collage; and (3) flexible means of accommodating, approaching the client, rather than the other way around. Consultants following this model can work pragmatically and effectively in an eclectic framework. For a truly sound eclectic consultant, the critical variables are theory and a keen sense of which approach to use, when, where, and how (Harman, 1977).
4. Requirements for the personality of a psychologist-consultant
Almost all scientists involved in theoretical and methodological research in the field of psychological counseling and psychotherapy note the importance of the consultant's personal characteristics. Different authors note different personal characteristics, but all agree that the client cannot ignore the personality of the consultant, and everything that the latter says and does is refracted through the image that he created with the client.
M. Balint spoke about the complete oblivion of the fact that psychotherapy is not theoretical knowledge, but personality skills. K. Rogers emphasized that the theory and methods of the consultant are less important than the implementation of his role. A. Gombs experimentally compared successful consultants and unsuccessful ones, revealed that the differences lie in personality traits. Z. Freud noted that a psychoanalyst does not need a medical education, but observation and the ability to penetrate the soul of a client are necessary. A. Adber said: "The technique of treatment is embedded in you." A. Storr suggested that psychotherapy and psychological counseling are considered to be unusual professions, since it is difficult for many people to imagine how one can listen to other people's stories about an unhappy life and difficulties all day long.
In fact, it turns out that the main technique of psychological counseling is to use yourself, your personality as a tool. Awareness of this position is an important stage on the way to becoming a professional.
It is very obvious that a person does not have special genes that are responsible for being a successful consultant or not. In general, of course, the personality of a consultant, like the personality of any other person, is formed on the basis of natural, biological characteristics, but the significance of these factors is not very great, although it still takes place.
After all, no one is born a consultant. Most importantly, no one is definitively a consultant. The required qualities develop throughout the professional life of a specialist consultant.
There is a lot of research in this area, but the model of the ideal consultant has not yet been built, different authors indicate different personal characteristics. Here is an example list of these properties:
The openness of the consultant (his manipulations, at least, are not noticeable to the client),
Warmth (sympathy, manifestation of lively emotions),
Attentiveness (he ignores nothing, pays attention to important points),
Good intuition in communication (the client can - and in a certain sense even should - hide some of the most important circumstances, and often one can only guess about these circumstances by the smallest features of behavior, a slightly changed intonation or a long pause - for example),
Lively interest in people (a new client for a consultant is like a new country in which he has not yet been; it is easiest to lose interest in people if you are confident in your own omniscience),
Sincerity (loves the Truth, strives for it, does not lie),
Flexibility (easily adapts to the client, the peculiarities of counseling, sudden changes in the client's mood),
Tolerance (the client's shortcomings are not condemned, although they are not encouraged either, non-standard behavior is not condemned),
Logic, objectivity, reasonableness (mastery of one's speech, the ability to build chains of reasoning, prudence, the ability to look at any situation as if from above),
Emotional stability (some intricate client life stories can "unsettle" an unprepared listener),
The ability to inspire trust (the client comes with his secrets, he will not share them with a person who "radiates a threat"),
The ability to respect (the slightest neglect can permanently alienate the client),
The absence of an inferiority complex (if the consultant - without even saying it out loud - begins to compare himself and the client, finding out which of them is "cooler", if he demonstrates his wealth in front of a poor client or, on the contrary, envy his wealth, then such a consultation may result in something completely different channel).
Conclusion
The goals of the consultant and the client ultimately touch, although each consultant has in mind his own system of general goals corresponding to his theoretical orientation, and each client has his own individual goals that led him to a specialist. Very often, the formulation and reformulation of goals occur in the process of counseling when the consultant interacts with the client. Realization of the consultant's goals depends on the needs and expectations of the client. In order to successfully combine your general tasks and the specific goals of the client, it is necessary from the very beginning to ask the client questions: "What do you expect from our communication?", "What are your desires?" etc. Clients tend to have only the most basic idea of what counseling is and what to expect from a counselor. When the client does not have any information about counseling, he is not able to properly formulate goals. If we inform the client about the length of the interviews and generally about what usually happens during counseling meetings, it is easier for him to understand the possibilities and limitations of counseling. Most clients come to psychological counseling, hoping that the consultant will immediately provide some help. In this situation, the consultant must remember the main goal of counseling - to help the client understand that he himself is the person who must decide, act, change, and actualize his abilities.
Bibliography:
1. Abramova G.S. Practical psychology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Academic project, 2005. - 491 p.
2. Pakhalyan V.E. Psychological counseling: Textbook for universities. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008. - 252 p.
3. Kochunas R. Fundamentals of psychological counseling. M., 1999.
4. Sapogova E.E. Counseling psychology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Academy, 2008. - 352 p.
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Definition of psychological counseling as a type of professional activity of a practical psychologist. Ethical aspects of the activity of a psychologist-consultant. General information about the client. Methodical analysis of the transcript of a counseling session.
1. The concept of psychologicalcounseling.Goals andtasks, principlescounseling,
Psychological counseling- Applied branch of modern psychology. In system psychological science, its task is to develop the theoretical foundations and applied programs for providing psychological help mentally and somatically healthy people v situations when they face their own problems.
The specificity of psychological counseling is the emphasis on dialogue, circulation information, on the exchange of information between a psychologist-consultant and those people for whom psychological counseling is used. Tasks: Listening to the client. Relief of the emotional state of the client. Acceptance by the client of responsibility for what is happening to him. Assistance from a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in a situation. Target psychological counseling is defined as providing psychological help, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person in solving his problems and establishing relationships with others. The purpose of psychological counseling according to R. Kociunas:
to promote a change in the behavior of the client or a change in attitude to the situation, to help client enjoy life and live productively; develop skills to overcome life's difficulties; ensure effective decision-making;
develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships;
facilitate the realization and increase of the potential of the individual.
Principles psychological counseling: benevolent and invaluable attitude towards the client; focus on the norms and values of the client; careful attitude to advice; distinction between personal and professional relationships; the involvement of the client and the psychologist in the counseling process.
3. Basic tricksreferenceconversations. The personality and professional ethics of a psychologistconsultant.
Conventionally, the conversation between a consultant and a client can be divided into four stages: Acquaintance with the client and the beginning of the conversation. Questioning the client, formulating and testing advisory hypotheses.
corrective impact. End of conversation. The duration of the appointment, during which the conversation actually takes place, varies significantly depending on the goals and objectives of counseling, the organizational forms within which it is carried out, as well as the theoretical orientation of the consultant. Start of a conversation. The first thing the consultant needs to do during the appointment is to meet and seat the client. The success of the conversation largely depends on how, from the very first minutes, the psychologist will be able to prove himself to be a friendly and interested interlocutor. A very important point in the beginning of the conversation is getting to know the client by name. In principle, the client may refuse to identify himself, but forget or not invite him to introduce himself - this means in many ways dooming the consultation to failure.
Client inquiry. We will conditionally divide this stage of the conversation into two sub-stages, at the first of which the psychologist still does not know anything about the client and therefore is most interested in the latter telling as fully as possible about himself and his situation. The second stage begins when the consultant already has enough information to formulate psycho-correctional hypotheses and begin testing them. The first phase of questioning the client. Since the main goal of the consultant in this phase is to "talk" the client, its implementation will be best helped by questions and remarks that maximally stimulate his story. “Tell me about your relationship...”, “What is your family like?” Naturally, while the client is talking, the psychologist is not just listening, but working. It is conditionally possible to single out several areas of work at this stage of counseling. The consultant 1) maintains contact with the client; 2) stimulates him to continue the story; 3) contributes to the purposeful development of the conversation; 4) makes sense of what the client is saying. In order to fully participate in the dialogue with the client, the consultant should remember the names, titles, dates, various details mentioned by the client. The questioning process takes 25-30 minutes, but 15-20 minutes after the start of the conversation, the consultant should already understand the client's problems and situation well enough to be ready to move on to the second phase of the questioning - formulating and testing advisory hypotheses. Hypotheses in psychological counseling. Each hypothesis is the consultant's attempt to understand the client's advice.
Hypotheses in psychological counseling are, in fact, options for more constructive positions in a situation, probable ways of reorienting the client in his attitude to his problems.
The counselor's hypotheses are based on what the client says about himself and his problems. The second phase of questioning the client. In the second phase, the nature of the questions fundamentally changes. The wording becomes more subtle, aimed at clarifying the consultant's ideas. “How many times a week does he come back after twelve?”, “When exactly did you first have the feeling that she was unwell?” The main approach to work at the 2nd stage of the questioning is the analysis of specific situations from the client's life. Working with specific situations is one of the most reliable ways for a consultant to test his hypotheses. After two or three such specific situations have been discussed, the consultant can say with certainty which of the hypotheses turned out to be the most appropriate. Provision of psychocorrectional influence. The impact is based on the analysis of a specific situation. The tasks of psycho-correctional influence can be considered realized only when a peculiar chain of events is built not only in the mind of the consultant, but also in the mind of the client. The goal of the consultant is to help the client formulate as many possible behaviors as possible, and then, carefully analyzing them, choose what is most appropriate for this person in his situation. End of conversation. 1. Summing up the conversation (a brief summary of everything that happened during the reception; 2. Discussion of issues related to further relations
client with a consultant or other necessary specialists; 3. Consultant's farewell to the client.
2. Stages of the consultative process. Stage 1. Acquaintance with the client and the beginning of the conversation. The duration of this stage is 5-10 minutes, with the average duration of one consultative conversation 45 minutes - 1 hour 10 minutes. During this stage, the psychologist-consultant performs the following actions: You can stand up to meet the client or meet her at the door of the office, which will be perceived by the client as a demonstration of goodwill and interest. It is advisable to encourage the client with words like “Come in, please”, “Sit down comfortably”.
After the first minutes of contact with the client, it is recommended to give him a pause of 45 - 60 seconds so that the client can collect his thoughts and look around. After a pause, it is desirable to begin the actual acquaintance. As Kociunas R.-A. B. (1999), the client must make a decision about his entry v the counseling process is quite conscious, therefore, before the start of the counseling process, the counseling psychologist
is obliged to provide the client with maximum information about the consulting process, namely: about the main goals of consulting, about His qualifications, fees for consulting, O the approximate duration of counseling, the appropriateness of counseling in this situation, O risk
temporary deterioration of the client's condition v consultation process, O privacy boundaries. G) It is important to coordinate with the client in advance the possibility of audio and video recording. g) It is important not to allow the client to use the consultant for his own purposes, far from consulting, h) After addressing all of the above above questions, you can proceed to questioning the client, which will mark the beginning of the second stage of psychological counseling. Stage 2. Client inquiry, formation and verification of consultative hypotheses The duration of this stage is 25 - 35 minutes with an average duration of a consultative conversation of 45 minutes - 1 hour 10 minutes. This stage can be conditionally divided into two sub-stages: Formation of advisory hypotheses.
Testing advisory hypotheses. The activity of a psychologist-coisulypant at the first sub-line "Formation To advisory hypotheses":
a) Empathic Listening. Usually, when talking about empathy in psychology, they mean the ability to sensitively perceive the inner world another man with all his semantic and emotional nuances. This corresponds to an active response consultant for then. what the client says, frequent utterance of words like “Of course”, “Uh-huh”, “Yes, yes.”
4. The specifics of remote counseling.
The goal is to prevent the further development of acute crisis states, to help resolve a traumatic situation.
Principles: Respect for the anonymity of the applicant - it strengthens
the patient's sense of security, increases confidence when discussing personal problems; Establishing a “compassionate partnership” relationship; Compliance with the availability of a psychotherapist; awareness of the availability of help relieves feelings of loneliness and helplessness; Compliance with the sequence of stages of therapy. two stages: on the 1st, assistance is provided in mastering the situation. On the 2nd - correction of suicidogenic attitudes. The first conversation is crucial in preventing a further development of the crisis. In the helpline - this conversation lasts from 1.5 to 2 hours, it requires maximum effort from the employee. stage: establishing contact - the main task is to convince of emotional acceptance and sympathy - emotional tension decreases. Emotional acceptance stops the experience of loneliness expressed in suicidal reactions.
stage: intellectual mastery of the situation. sympathetically
listening to the patient, the therapist reduces the emotional
tension, asking appropriate questions the therapist forms
in the mind of the subscriber an objective and consistent picture
psychotraumatic situation in its development - the method of "structuring
situations." Helpline employee emphasizes that the subscriber
have time to think about the situation. Talking about your life
way, the patient reports his successes, difficulties. Therapist tactfully
emphasizes these successes, forming the interlocutor's idea of him
as a person capable of realizing a productive life
ways and overcoming difficulties - reception success therapy and
achievements." Repetition of the content of statements by this technique
the subscriber is informed that he is being listened to carefully and correctly
understand. Stage III: planning the actions necessary to overcome the critical situation. The main techniques of stage III:
Interpretation - the helpline employee makes hypotheses about possible ways to resolve the situation. Planning - an incentive to verbalize plans for future activities.
Holding a pause - The purpose of a pause is to give the client an opportunity to take the initiative. Active psychological support - increases the confidence of the applicant in his ability to overcome
difficult situation, highlighting past achievements. Techniques: logical argumentation, persuasion, rational suggestion.
5. Humanistically oriented counseling.
In person-centered or client-centered theory
emphasizes the importance of the self-concept of people, depending on
the ways in which they understand and define themselves. The desire for actualization, inherent in the body and making it possible for its self-preservation and self-strengthening, is the only motivating stimulus for people. The self-concept develops very early in people. Many of the self-images that form the self-concept are likely based on the organism's own evaluative process. However, other self-conceptions reflect the values of others, seen as concepts based on one's own organismic evaluative process. Thus, a conflict arises between the desire for actualization and the self-concept, which is a subsystem of the desire for actualization. This conflict prevents the correct perception of both internal and external experience. Pre-perception is the mechanism by which the organism senses where the experience is inconsistent with the self-concept. Depending on the degree of threat that the experience brings with it, the organism can defend its self-concept by rejecting the experience or distorting its perception. People are psychologically well to the extent that their self-concepts allow them to perceive essential sensory and visceral experiences. Rogers and Maslow's goals in counseling and in life. Six key characteristics of self-image of fully functioning or self-actualizing people are identified: openness to experience, rationality, personal responsibility, self-esteem, the ability to establish and maintain good personal relationships, and leading an ethical lifestyle. In the practice of person-centered counseling, the emphasis is on the quality of interpersonal relationships. The central starting point is that if consultants create a certain atmosphere in building relationships with clients, then the personality of these clients is constructively changed. No preliminary assessment is given. The person-centered counselor provides all clients with relationship congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. Creating such an atmosphere contributes to the fact that clients have increased congruence in relationships, increased self-esteem and empathy. Thus, clients are in the process of becoming a person and regulating their own lives.
7.Behaviorally oriented counseling.
Behavioral theory can also be seen as
comprehensive theory, and as an attempt to describe on the basis of
experiments laws or principles by which
human behavior is studied and supported. Pavlov conducted large-scale studies, during which he studied the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres of dogs. Pavlov discovered the conditioned reflex, which is known as classical or respondent conditioning. Watson considered behavioral psychology, otherwise called "behaviorism", as an objective experimental branch of natural science, which deals mainly with human behavior. Watson distinguished between acquired and non-acquired responses. Most human reactions are acquired. On the basis of conditioning, systems of habits are formed: a) visceral or emotional; b) manual; c) laryngeal or verbal. Skinner believed that behavior is shaped and sustained by its consequences. The theory of operant conditioning emphasizes that behavior affects the environment, generating consequences. Reinforcers are events that increase the likelihood of a response. The components of reinforcement that describe the interaction between the organism and the environment are: a) the circumstance in which the reaction takes place; b) the reaction itself; c) reinforcing consequences. Behavioral counseling begins with a behavioral assessment, which is carried out to determine the goals and methods of treatment. Evaluation involves the collection of data, which may be obtained from interviews or other sources such as the client's self-observation. Counselors can help clients by increasing the number of reinforcers available and diversifying incentives. This approach is very effective in treating people who are depressed. a) deep muscle relaxation training; b) creation of thematic hierarchies of stimuli that cause anxiety; c) presenting the points of the hierarchy to the imagination of deeply relaxed clients. Counselors can teach clients how to manage stimuli associated with adaptive and inappropriate responses and how to use positive and negative self-reinforcement. Goals: eliminating deficits in behavioral repertoires; strengthening adaptive behavior; weakening or eliminating inappropriate behavior; elimination of debilitating anxiety reactions, development of the ability to relax; development of the ability to assert oneself; development of effective social skills; achieving adequate sexual
functioning; developing the ability to self-regulate.
6. Gestalt-oriented counseling.
The founders of Gestalt therapy are Frederick S. Perls, Ralph F. Heffrline, Paul Goodman. Therapy consists in analyzing the internal structure of actual experience, regardless of the inherent degree of contact, in studying not so much what is experienced, remembered, done, etc., but how it is remembered, how it is said, etc. All the directions described works contribute to the integration of the client's personality, help to overcome neurotic defense mechanisms and find the "true Self". The main theoretical provisions of Gestalt therapy: Each organism strives to achieve a state of full functioning, which means completeness
internal organs. A person in the process of perceiving the external world does not perceive individual elements
reality as isolated and not interconnected, but organizes them into a whole or into gestalts that have for him
values. The functioning of the individual is carried out through a process of self-regulation, through which the organism satisfies its needs (or incomplete gestalt) and maintains a balance in constantly changing
conditions. An individual can exist only within the boundaries of the environment, which is an integral field that includes him and
environment, and its behavior is a function of the entire field.
A characteristic element of Gestalt therapy is attention to the processes and phenomena occurring in the body as a whole, and not in individual elements of its structure. The main process integrating the functioning of the body is consciousness. Gestalt recognizes and restores balance in consciousness, thereby helping a person to find his fullness (comfort). Within the framework of the concept of Gestalt therapy, the following variants of protective mechanisms are described: PROJECTION. Attributing own undesirable qualities and motives for the client to other people. INTROJECTION. The client acts in accordance with the principles, attitudes, rules, etc. learned from significant persons (especially in childhood).
DEFLECTION. Avoiding real action to overcome obstacles or solve problems by
endless and hopeless talk about the problem.
CONFLUENCE. Blurring the boundaries of one's Self and merging with the Self of another person without a clear delineation of one from the other. The client in such cases, describing his experiences, uses the pronoun "we". RETROFLEXION. Instead of focusing energy on overcoming external difficulties and obstacles, a person turns it on himself, therefore, he often becomes inappropriately aggressive or acquires psychosomatic
disorder. Principles gestalt therapy:
The principle of "now", or the idea of focusing on the present moment, is the most important principle in Gestalt -
therapy. The principle of "I and You". This principle expresses the desire for open and direct contact between people.
Those. not just transfer the conversation to the therapist, but directly talk to the person about the problem. The principle of subjectivization of the utterance. This principle is related to the semantic aspects of the responsibility and involvement of the patient. For example: “Something is pressing me”, “something is preventing me from saying this” Continuity (continuum) of awareness - intentional concentration on the spontaneous flow of the content of experiences,
being aware of what and how is happening at the moment.
8. The subject, goals and objectives of cognitive-oriented counseling.
The cognitive approach is based on theories describing personality in terms of the organization of cognitive structures. It is with them that the psychologist works in a correctional plan, and in some cases we are talking not only about violations of the cognitive sphere itself, but also about the difficulties that determine communication problems, internal conflicts, etc. Cognitive psycho-correction is focused on the present. This approach is directive, active and focused on the client's problem, used both in individual and group form, as well as for the correction of family and marital relations. The following features can be distinguished: The focus is not on the client's past, but on his present - thoughts about himself and the world. It is believed that knowledge of the causes of disorders does not always lead to their correction: for example, if a person comes to the doctor with a broken bone, then the task of the doctor is to heal the fracture, and not to study the causes that led to it. Correction is based on learning new ways of thinking. Widespread use of the homework system aimed at transferring the acquired new skills to the environment of real interaction.
3. The main task of correction is changes in self-perception
and the surrounding reality, while recognizing that
knowledge about oneself and the world influences behavior, and behavior and its
the consequences affect the perceptions of oneself and the world.
The cognitive approach can be divided into two directions:
1. Cognitive-analytical.
2. Cognitive-behavioral.
Cognitive-analytical direction.
The main task is to create a model of a psychological problem that would be understandable to the client and with which he could work independently. The task of the psychologist D. Kelly considered to be the clarification of unconscious categories of thinking (which are the source of categories of thinking) and teaching the client new ways of thinking. To do this, he created techniques for the direct correction of inadequate ways of thinking. The main concepts used in the cognitive-analytical direction: "traps", "dilemmas", "obstacles".
The goal of cognitive counseling is "to re-induce the reality-checking system" (Beck. 1990). Cognitive counselors "teach patients to correct cognitive processing defects themselves and reinforce assumptions that enable them to cope" (Beck, Weishaar, 1989). In addition, cognitive counselors seek to develop in clients behavioral skills that are relevant to their problems. When working with cognitions, counselors teach clients to: control negative automatic thoughts; awareness of the connection between cognitions, emotions and behavior; research and verification of arguments for and against, distorted automatic thoughts; replacing prejudice-based cognitions with more rational interpretations; identifying and changing beliefs that contribute to a predisposition to
distortion of experience
9. A. Beck's cognitive theory. cognitive distortions. Strategies for cognitiveoriented counseling.
A. Beck expresses a fundamentally new approach to the correction of emotional disorders, different from the traditional schools of psychoanalysis and behavioral therapy. A cognitive approach to emotional disorders changes a person's view of himself and his problems. The client is taught to see himself as an individual who is prone to generate erroneous ideas, but who is also able to reject or correct erroneous ideas. Only by identifying or correcting thought errors can the client create a life of higher self-fulfillment for themselves. The main idea of A. Beck's cognitive psycho-correction is that the decisive factor for the survival of the organism is the processing of information. As a result, programs of behavior are born. A person survives by receiving information from the environment, synthesizing it and planning actions based on this synthesis, i.e. developing their own program of behavior. each person in cognitive functioning has its own weakness- “cognitive vulnerability”. It is she who disposes a person to psychological stress. Cognitive Distortions- These are systematic errors in judgments under the influence of emotions. These include: 1.Personalization- the tendency to interpret the event in terms of personal meanings. The client overestimates both the frequency and extent of the negative feelings he causes in other people. 2. Dichotomous thinking. A person perceives the world only in contrasting colors, rejecting halftones, a neutral emotional position. H. Selective abstraction (extraction). at a noisy party, a young man becomes jealous of his girlfriend, who bowed her head to another person in order to better hear him. 4. Unsubstantiated inferences- unsubstantiated or even contradictory inferences. For example, a working mother at the end of a hard day's work concludes: "I am a bad mother." 5. Overgeneralization 6. Exaggeration (catastrophization)- exaggeration of the consequences of any events Cognitive Oriented Counseling Strategy1. Troubleshooting- identification of problems based on the same causes and their grouping. 2. Awareness and verbalization of non-adaptive cognitions, distorting the perception of reality. 3. estrangement- the process of objective consideration of thoughts, in which the client considers his maladaptive mentalities as psychological phenomena isolated from reality. 5. Change of attitude to the rules of self-regulation. b. Checking the truth of the rules, replacing them with new ones, more flexible. correction goals. The main goal is to correct inadequate cognitions, realize the rules of inadequate information processing and replace them with correct ones. The tasks of a psychologist. To teach the client to be aware of the connections between cognitive schemas, affects and behavior. Learn to replace dysfunctional thoughts with more realistic interpretations. Identify and change beliefs that predispose to experience distortion. position of the psychologist. Since A. Beck believes that the psychologist and the client are co-workers in the study of facts. Which reinforce or refute the client's cognitive schemes, then this is a two-way process and it is a partnership. Therefore, a partnership should develop between the client and the psychologist. Interpretations or assumptions of the client are considered by the psychologist as hypotheses that need to be tested and confirmed.
11. The main stages of cognitive-oriented counseling. Cognitive and Behavioral Techniques Used in Cognitive-Oriented Counseling.
1. Acquaintance. 2 Identification of problematic interfering behavior, (using empathic listening.) 3. Identification of forms of distortion in behavior and in reaction to the situation, (distortions: personalization, dichotomous thinking - thoughts in extremes, selective abstraction, arbitrary inferences, over-communicativeness,
exaggeration). 4. Development of a new behavior model (through new forms of behavior, homework, etc.) 5. Checking the new selected behavior, working on errors, working out point 3 again.
1-3 COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES, S-BEHAVIORAL TECHNIQUES.
1.
Identification automatic thoughts. Void filling is applied - this method helps the client with disorders of excessive shame, anxiety, anger or sadness in interpersonal situations. Fills the void (B) between "A and C": A - an exciting event, C - a moderate, inadequate reaction, B - a void in the patient's mind, which
serves as a bridge between A and C. The void is filled through elements of the patient's belief system. 2. Correction automatic thoughts includes decatastrophizing, reattribution, reformulation,
decentralization. Decatastrophization - refers to the reduction of catastrophization (the client's tendency to exaggerate everything to
catastrophes). This technique - "what if" - is intended for the study of actual, actual events and
consequences that, in the mind of the client, cause him psychological damage and cause a feeling of anxiety.
Technique helps to prepare for the consequences associated with fear. The technique itself: the client describes one of his super fears and the psychologist equates, together with the client, his fear on a 100-point scale, for example, with the loss of a loved one, etc. Reattribution- verification of the correctness of automatic thoughts and beliefs, alternative causes of events are considered. Reattribution is especially useful in cases where the client perceives himself as the cause
events in the absence of evidence. The reattribution technique involves a reality check and an examination of all the factors that influenced the occurrence of the situation. Reformation- the technique is designed to mobilize a person who believes that the problem is not under their control. Decentralization- with various psychological disorders (anxiety, depression, paranoid states) - the main distortion of thinking stems from the client's tendency to personify events that are not related to him. Identification and correction dysfunctional beliefs are very difficult to work with and isolate. Work with them is carried out through a cognitive experiment and the study of beliefs. Homework
- provides an opportunity to apply and consolidate cognitive principles between consultations. V
Cognitive counseling, like any other DZ, is given without fail, its implementation is checked, new forms of behavior and attitudes to the situation are honed through DZ. Behavior rehearsal and role play - used to train skills that will later be applied in behavior. Distraction techniques - to reduce strong emotions and negative thinking. This includes physical activity, social contacts, work, play.
Activity planning is the implementation of the daily routine, as well as the assessment of the performance of a particular activity.
10. Maintheoreticalaspects of rational-emotive therapy by A. Ellis.
A. Ellis believes that every person is born with a certain potential, and this potential has two sides: rational and irrational; constructive and destructive, etc. According to A. Ellis, psychological problems appear when a person tries to follow simple preferences (desires for love, approval, support) and mistakenly believes that these simple preferences are the absolute measure of his success in life. In addition, a person is a being extremely subject to various influences at all levels - from biological to social. Therefore, A. Ellis is not inclined to reduce all the changeable complexity of human nature to one thing. RET distinguishes three leading psychological aspects of human functioning: thoughts (cognitions), feelings and behavior. A. Ellis identified two types of cognition: descriptive and evaluative. Descriptive cognitions contain information about reality, about what a person has perceived in the world, this is “pure” information about reality. Evaluative cognitions reflect a person's attitude to this reality. Descriptive cognitions are necessarily connected with evaluative connections of varying degrees of rigidity. Important in RET is the concept of "trap", i.e. all those cognitive formations that create unreasonable neurotic anxiety. A.Ellis proposed his own personality structure, which he named after the first letters of the Latin alphabet "ABC-theory": A - activating event; B - client's opinion about the event; C - emotional or behavioral consequences of the event; D - subsequent reaction to the event as a result of mental processing; E - the final value conclusion (constructive or destructive). This conceptual scheme has found wide application in practical correctional psychology, since it allows the client himself to conduct effective self-observation and self-analysis in the form of diary entries.
12. Sociometric techniques of the psychologist's work with the family.
sociometric techniques
Sociometric techniques are methods for observing, measuring and changing social interaction. The relationship of roles and functions in a particular social system is the main object of study here.
Based on the sociometric approach, social and clinical psychologists have invented many new techniques.
1. Family sociogram
- method of describing preferences and
role-playing choices.
2. Hemogram - method of describing family history.
3. Ecomap -
method of describing the place of a given family in
extended family system and social
community great attention is paid to those internal
and external resources that are available to the family.
4. Family space -
description method
relationships of space, place and emotions in a given
family system.
5. Family sculpture
-
location method
individual in the intra-family system of relationships, in
current situation, or
presented perfectly.
6. Games -
metaphors for playing role-playing behavior in
family on the basis of some kind of joint activity.
7. Role playing card game
-
role determination method
behavior expected of family members and
perceived by other family members as adequate.
Sociometric techniques provide the family therapist with many options.
1. They take the psychotherapeutic process away from intellectual and emotional discussion towards real interaction. They place the present, the past and the foreseeable
the future into the operating system "here and now".
They contain important elements of personal
projection and identification. They vividly represent and dramatize the role play.
behavior. They are very unexpected for customers, not
fit the way they imagine
work at a psychotherapeutic session
2. They are interesting
They are a form
metacommunications. They focus on the social system and the process of social interaction.
13. Structural model of psychological counseling of the family (S. Minukhin,
B. Montalvo, B. Gurney).
In this model, the family is interpreted as a continuous experiment, in which they balance on the verge of stability and change. The family will make mistakes, conflicts will arise because of mistakes, they will be resolved and thus the family will develop. From these rather obvious provisions, the basic concepts of the structural model are derived: the structure of the family, the subsystems of the family, the boundaries of the structure. The structure of the family, according to S. Minukhin (1974), “forms an invisible network of requirements and functions that forms the ways of interaction in the family.” This is a constant, repetitive, predictable behavior that makes it possible to judge whether the family is functioning. And in order to function, it creates its own structure. Consequently, the structure of the family includes sets of conscious and unconscious rules that determine the interaction in the family. For this mechanism to work, a maintenance system is needed. It consists of two parts. The first is genetic, which is present in all families. This is a hierarchical system based on the authority of parents, which is always and everywhere higher than the authority of children. And the second - family complementary roles (for example, one of the parents is the most competent, the other is more emotional). Hierarchy and roles are not always clearly understood, often the reasons for their appearance are forgotten, but they are certainly balanced and complement each other. If this is not the case, the family does not function; actually broke up. A successful choice of roles by a couple, and this is the main condition for a successful marriage, according to S. Minukhin, involves coordination and adaptation. In addition to these basic concepts, in the structural model, an important place is given to the change of the family over time. Here, the so-called transition points are distinguished, in which the structure of the family changes. These points are as follows: marriage, the birth of children, the beginning of schooling, the youth of children, the departure of children from home. It is argued that in the countries of Western culture, these transitional points in the normal development of the family are symptoms of expected crises. S. Minukhin points out that it is easiest for a psychologist to influence a family during crises, especially deep ones.
15. Communication model of psychological counseling of the family (V. Satir, J. Grinder, R. Bandler, P. Watzlavik).
The most important provisions of P. Vatslavik on the rules of communication include the following: no one can not do things, therefore, no one can not communicate; communication has two levels - messages and commands (the command reveals the essence of the relationship); a separate act (communication) is understandable only in the context of behavior; problems arise in a certain context due to broken feedback. If the feedback is not broken, then the meaning of behavior is recognized identically and the family system can function and maintain its stability. This is a sign of a healthy, or normal, family. Such a family does not break up, having experienced stress. Shifts in it occur when there is a need for it. Communication by family members is clear and logical. Thus, the norm in this model is identified with functioning. A dysfunctional family does the opposite. She tries to avoid changes that would meet changing circumstances. For this reason, refuses information about these circumstances. Therefore, communication between its members does not occur, and if it does, then according to the patterns of double communication, when a verbal message denies a non-verbal one, and the sender of the message is not a psychologist, becomes a family teacher and a demonstrator of various forms of communication. At meetings with the family, he must discuss unconscious secret messages. He also suggests evaluating the effectiveness of assistance not during consultations or immediately after their completion, but several months after the last meeting with a psychologist. Another model of communication assistance to the family is offered by V. Satir. As V. Satir points out, while working with the family, she realized that a new family situation is created depending on the four most important phenomena: thoughts and feelings with which a person expresses his attitude towards himself, i.e. self-esteem; the ways in which people communicate information to each other, i.e. communications; the rules that people follow in their lives, i.e. family system; ways to maintain relationships with other social systems. Regardless of the family difficulties that prompted to turn to a psychologist, the method of influencing the family is the same - it is necessary to evaluate and correct all four of the phenomena mentioned. Healthy, prosperous families, which V. Satir calls mature families, are characterized by such properties: high self-esteem, direct, clear and honest communication, flexible and humane rules of conduct. In such a family, its members are oriented towards change (growth), social ties are open, full of positive attitudes and hopes. From the point of view of V. Satir, the natural need of every person is to grow. Each person has the necessary resources to achieve this goal. Using these resources, he can increase his potential. The task of the psychologist is to facilitate growth, to ensure that it meets the needs of the family as much as possible. V. Satir points out that in her system, psychological counseling of the family is carried out in five stages. During 1 stage a threat is revealed that prompted him to turn to family counseling. Establishing a diagnosis of the emerging threat and its expansion, linking it with communication in the family is the content of the first stage. On the 2 stage it turns out that someone (for example, a psychologist) must get involved in the relationship of family members and change them. However, at this time, the family tries to reject extraneous influence on it, to reject psychological help. 3 stage- the stage of chaos, incomprehensible communications and contradictory behavior. If there is no third stage, if everything is clear to the psychologist and the family, there will be no changes in the family. The stage of chaos obviously shows that the family can no longer live the way it used to. This is the most difficult stage for a psychologist, because. it begins the growth of the family, and its members are not yet active enough. At this stage, it is still inappropriate to make decisions that are significant for further relationships, but emotions are expressed and needs are revealed, and the desire for personal growth is strengthened. This allows you to proceed to the tasks of the fourth stage, i.e. to practice. The purpose of the stage is a new practice in the application of communication skills. Since a person gravitates towards old habits, only understanding the new communication situation does not guarantee a shift. Therefore, practical exercises and training are needed to help consolidate new communication. Here the family as a whole supports the psychologist. The fifth stage is the stage of a new family situation. It may be similar to the first one, and on it you can begin to implement a new cycle of psychological counseling for the family. A feature of further cycles is that the stage of chaos is shorter and not so contradictory. A family that has gone through three or more cycles of psychological counseling is usually free of threatening symptoms and approaches the model of a harmonious, balanced, open family. During the meeting with the family, the psychologist demonstrates balanced, harmonious communication and reveals, reveals to family members the inconsistency of their mutual communication.
14. Psychological counseling of the family based on the theory of family systemsM. Bowen (psychodynamic model).
No other psychological theory has been as widespread or as influential as psychoanalysis. The fundamental provisions and concepts (for example, the Oedipus complex) of this theory are closely related to family relationships. The main provisions of M. Boven: a family is a small group of people living in common house. At the same time, the family is also an emotional system that includes all family members (both the living and the deceased, and those outside the family). This emotional system exists in the present.
16. The concept of an ideal family in the concept of K. Rogers. The role of the family therapist In the competence of K. Roger, each person has a desire to activate himself, to preserve, complicate his internal organization and adapt to the environment.
There is also a strong desire to meet the desires of others (to conform to them). Each person develops a self-esteem - an image, a representation of himself. A person begins to focus more not on his own self-esteem, but on the expectations of others. This deformation of personal development, which takes place in the modern family, inhibits the process of personal development and can lead to neurosis.
One of the main functions of the family is to create conditions for the development of the individual and all its members. The question is relevant - how family members communicate, perceive each other. Rogers identified 3 conditions under which the client begins to focus on his tendency to actualize himself, rather than on the opinions and assessments of others. This is the Rogers triad.
1. The therapist is congruent with the client
to our own experience (congruence - those reactions that we have - we try to follow them). Don't lie to the client.
2. He performs (experiences) the unconditional
positive acceptance towards the client. So that the client does not do or says something bad, the consultant accepts him.
3. Empathically perceive the client, i.e.
the ability to accept it and express to the client his feelings so that he can better understand himself. These 3 conditions can be realized in the following ways:
1. Verbalization - return to the client what he said.
2. The ability to be silent so that the client feels the unconditional
positive acceptance.
3. Actualization of the language of feelings.
The functions of creating conditions for the development of the personality of all family members correspond to the role of a family psychotherapist. Each member of the family should be a psychotherapist to another - this will correspond to their growth. The family will perform: the function of a refuge in a heartless world; providing psychological comfort. Rogers described 2 ways parents function.
1. Well functioning parents are
parents who are characterized by a high level of self-acceptance, which determines the high level of acceptance of their children and their organic evaluation.
2. Poorly functioning parents with low
a level of self-acceptance that prevents them from accepting their children and encourages them to often formulate a condition of value in relation to their children. The task of psychotherapy is to revive the role of the family therapist. There are questionnaires for the analysis of communication in the family. Scales: mutual understanding between spouses; degree of psychotherapy in communication.
17. The work of a psychologist-consultant with marital conflicts.
Let us dwell in more detail on some of the advantages of working with two spouses, as well as on certain difficulties associated with this option for clients to come to the consultation.
1. First of all, a conversation with two, and not with one spouse, is more diagnostic, allows you to immediately see the problems and difficulties that clients complain about.
2. Referring to what is happening "here and now" is more convincing and effective than the analysis of what is happening outside the consultant's office.
3. The presence of both clients allows you to successfully use a number of special techniques and techniques.
4. while working with both partners, it is possible, if necessary, to maintain the working motivation of one of them “at the expense” of the other.
5. Couple counseling is often more effective.
But, in addition to these and some other advantages, working with both spouses has a number of additional difficulties and disadvantages.
1. First of all, it is usually more difficult to conduct a reception in which two clients, rather than one, are usually more difficult, especially in the early stages of the consultation process, since the presence of the second member of the couple affects the course of the conversation in one way or another
2. Work with two spouses, although it is more effective, is often less deep, superficial. In this case, serious personal problems underlying certain marital disagreements are less often addressed.
3. Working with both spouses is more vulnerable in a way. The unwillingness of one of them to move on, the character traits of one of the partners that impede more in-depth work, can seriously interfere with counseling
Organization of work with a married couple. If both spouses came to the reception and both express their readiness to discuss family problems together, it is simply a “sin” for the consultant not to take advantage of this.
There is a fear of clients that the consultant will support only one of them. Psychologist's answer: “I have a big request for you: as soon as you notice that I took the side of one of you to the detriment of the other, immediately point it out to me. It will help me a lot in my work, and I will be sincerely grateful to you.” Such an answer is, as a rule, especially convincing. It happens that one of the spouses “brings” the other to counseling, and, accordingly, the orientation of one of them to psychological assistance is much less, and often it is not at all. In such cases, the "unmotivated" spouse often from the very beginning expresses a desire to talk with a counselor in private, without a partner. The counselor should show some perseverance, trying to convince clients of the possibilities and benefits of joint marital therapy. Work organization With one spouse. But most often it happens that the spouse comes to the consultation alone, not wanting, and most often not being able to bring a partner with him. In such a situation, it is necessary first of all to support him, assuring that work with one member of the couple is by no means meaningless or fruitless. The situation of working with one spouse, and not with two, is “dangerous” due to inequality, since the person who comes to the appointment, in a sense, takes the burden of family problems on himself alone. In expressing such doubts in a counseling situation, the client is generally right, since the main condition for constructive psychological work is the client's acceptance of guilt (or responsibility) for what happens in the family, although it is obvious that both spouses contribute to the problems. Even a single successful conversation with one of the spouses can lead to the fact that the next time both will come to the reception. There is another possibility for the development of the consultation process, which in no case should not be overlooked. This is a situation where the consultant himself becomes the initiator of separate meetings with partners. This usually happens when the work does not move forward and the obstacle that has arisen - the unwillingness of the spouses to discuss anything, the obvious stubbornness of one of them, reinforced by the reactions of the other - becomes a serious obstacle to the counseling process. constructive negotiation technique. One of the effective techniques for establishing interpersonal communication between spouses is a face-to-face conversation between them, especially when something really important for both is touched upon or discussed. In this case, the counselor may ask them to address each other directly, looking into their partner's eyes and describing their feelings in detail.
19. The work of a psychologist-consultant with parent-youth conflicts.
Problems: . Normal relationships do not develop between parents and children of adolescence. Parents of high school students are not entirely satisfied that their children are friends with peers who, for one reason or another, do not suit their parents. Parents with young children are not happy with how their children choose their future procession. The choice of children does not quite suit the parents. Conflicts arise between a mother who is divorced from her father and a child of senior school age due to the fact that a stranger has appeared in the family (stepfather-stepmother). Normal relationships do not develop between children of different parents who are forced to live together in the same family. Let us consider successively the cases corresponding to these options from the point of view of the practice of psychological counseling. Consider the problem of vocational guidance for a teenager. If, while studying in high school, a boy or girl intends to choose a profession for themselves, which for one reason or another does not quite suit their parents, then in this case it is most reasonable for parents to do the following. First, try to understand why their child made such a decision, and not the one suggested by the parents. Secondly, try to find such weighty arguments in favor of the protected profession that would correspond to the needs and interests of the child. The mistake that many parents often make in solving this issue is that they talk to high school students as if the parents are absolutely right in everything, and the children are wrong in everything without exception. This position is incorrect in principle: one person cannot be right in everything, without exception, and the other is always wrong. Parental arguments and facts with which they try to convince their child when choosing a profession should be just as motivated as the arguments of children. Then they will be better able to understand the correctness of their parents.
Before evaluating another person's behavior,
all the more so - to condemn him, you need to try
understand him.
Never and under no circumstances
insult each other.
Wherever possible, go towards each other,
look for a compromise.
If compromise is not possible, then judiciously and
calmly explain your position to another and then
stick to it.
When in a state of irritation, do not try
figure out relationships with each other.
18. The work of a psychologist-consultant withthe problem of educationin family.
Relationships between parents and preschool children.
In the practice of psychological counseling, the following problems are encountered: The child is overly active or, on the contrary, unusually passive, apathetic, indifferent to everything. Both extremes in a child's behavior can, of course, cause justified concern for parents. Normal relationships do not develop between their children and conflicts quite often arise. . Spouses with a child still at an early age cannot agree on how they should educate and educate the child. A child who is already seven years old does not want to go to school. In the psyche and behavior of a preschool child, parents discovered something that worries them. Parents of a child of preschool age are preparing him for school and want to do everything in their power to prepare the child as best as possible for schooling. However, they have problems with this. Parents want to start teaching their child from an early preschool age, but they do not know if they are doing the right thing by loading the child with serious studies from an early age. between parents and children junior school age, the following variants of problems may arise that require psychological counseling. 1. Parents whose child is already in the first grade of school are worried that he is not studying well. 2. The child does not develop normal relationships with other children and teachers. For parents who have teenage children, and at themselvesteenagers Between parents and children who have reached adolescence, conflicts constantly arise on a variety of issues. For some reason, teenage children do not want to study, behave provocatively, perform their household duties in bad faith, do not fulfill promises made to their parents, etc. . It seems to parents that teenage children are hiding something from them. At the same time, parents notice that children often spend time outside the home and avoid communicating with them. A teenager is not interested in anything serious, from the point of view of his parents, and does not want to engage in his development. Consider the practice of conducting psychological counseling using an example:
Conflicts between teenagers and parents in the family are a common phenomenon. Such conflicts are usually associated with the transition of the child to a higher level of psychological development. It is necessary to have the following practical recommendations as possible: 1. Try to stop emotionally reacting negatively to defiant actions and deeds
teenager, his resistance to the reasonable arguments of adults. You should try to objectively understand what is really happening, why a teenager behaves this way and not otherwise.
2. Think about how best to convince a teenager
change your behavior. 3. Make a decision and act solely by the method of persuasion, without resorting to coercion.
4. Persistently continue to get your way by acting like this
until the problem is resolved. 5. Stop reacting negatively to a teenager's refusal to talk about himself and his affairs. Treat with understanding and respect the desire of a teenager to spend a lot of time outside the home in communication with peers. 6. Stop ignoring, dismissing serious discussion of those issues that concern a teenager. Stop scornfully reacting to the judgments of a teenager. 7. Imperceptibly, unobtrusively, but sincerely and
benevolently, on an equal footing, join in the conversations of adolescents, ensuring that they accept adults into their society and confidentially discuss with them issues of concern to them. With patience, parents should use only positive communication experiences. Here they will most likely need systematic consultations with a psychologist.
20. Domestic and foreign concepts of career guidance.
In 1983 - the concept of professional suitability (a set of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of a person, as well as the presence of special skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of professional activities. Two components of the structure: - mental characteristics 2 - professional skills. 1991 - Levitov - “a person who, in terms of his individual qualities, corresponds to this profession, should be considered fit for a profession." individual qualities person). The totality of these features has its own structure, and professional abilities should be included among the most significant components. Based on the classification of abilities. Teplova - all abilities can be divided into 2 groups: 1-general abilities (characterized by the quality of human thinking and processes of perception (perception, speed of thinking). 2 - special abilities - the ability to a certain type of activity (musical, artistic, mathematical, organizational skills). Yu.A. Orlov - he proposed (according to Teplov's scheme) to single out professional abilities as a combination of general (directed ability to be a teacher) and special (to be a teacher of physics). 2nd component - professional motivation. A person considers this profession to be his vocation, he believes that should be engaged in precisely this type of activity.Professional motivation - it can be stable, forming the main compounds of the profession and unstable (random).3 component - knowledge and skills.4 component - certain character traits (hard work, independence, responsibility - these are the qualities that encourage a person 5th component - job satisfaction and the results of labor (work of a teacher, psychologist, doctor, manager). Types of professional suitability.
L.Yu. Gilbukh - 1981 - proposed to divide professional suitability into two types: 1 - absolute professional suitability (he meets the requirements of the profession in all his features). Ex. professions where prof. risk, so there must be full compliance, for example, an airport dispatcher (should be careful). 2 - relative professional suitability - a partial coincidence of the characteristics of a person and the requirements of the profession. Relative should be more than 50%. Assessment of professional suitability can be carried out on the following grounds: self-assessment of oneself as a professional; expert assessment of a specialist, colleagues and managers (professional examinations or professional attestations). First of all, checking professional knowledge, skills, and the quality of labor results. Theories of professional suitability. How should the characteristics of a person correspond to the requirements of the profession. They are divided into two groups: Group 1 - typological (division of people into types). Spranger identified the following types of individuality: theoretical person, economic person, aesthetic person,
social man, political man, religious man,
Goland proposed a division into 6 types: realistic, intellectual, social, entrepreneurial, artistic.
Eric Burke identified 3 main life scenarios: adult, parent, child. Parental professions - teach, cook, care. Children's professions - all professions of politics, art, sports, artistic.
Children's professions - all professions related to control (police).
In 1995, Isabelle Meyers and Katharina Briggs proposed a typology based on 4 main characteristics that regulate human life. 1 base - this is how a person focuses his attention and interacts with the outside world (extrovertive and introvertive people are visible on this basis). 2 basis - the ability to make a decision (for this
sensing or intuitive people stand out on the basis). 3 base - collection of information (highlight mental or
emotional type). 4 base is how a person interacts with the outside world (he wants to rebuild the world around / procedural or resultant /). Each type has a list of professions that corresponds to it. Introverted - psychologist - self-centered. The second type of theory is presented in the Russian typology (active approach). Gilbukh - proposed the concept of absolute and relative professional suitability and proposed diagnosing the degree of suitability of a person for a profession (for this you need to know the characteristics of a person and highlight the requirements that a given profession can present). Klimov's 2nd theory - his idea is based on 4 degrees of suitability. 1 - unsuitability for the profession (inconsistency with the profession) 2 - fitness for the profession (almost complete compliance with the profession) 3 - conformity with the profession and is expressed in the fact that a person has no obvious contraindications and obvious indications 50x50. 4- vocation (when a person fully meets all the requirements of the profession and considers it his vocation).
21. The main directions and stages of career guidance work at school. Main directions:
1. familiarization of students with the features of various professions in the classroom and outside of school hours.
2. demonstration of practical work during excursions to the enterprise.
3. meeting with interesting people (politicians, scientists, school graduates, etc.)
4. acquaintance with the fan of the profession (demand for the profession in the regions)
5. teaching students the initial skill of industrial professions in labor lessons
6. use of media
7. professional games
Stages of career guidance. There are 3 stages associated with periods of age development
1. Primary school age - interest in the profession is peripheral. At this stage, talk about
professions.
2. middle school age. The main task is to form your own I AM, help the student to learn
themselves, analyze their interest in school subjects.
3. senior school age. It is necessary that the student understands the need for a profession. Value orientations serve as the main selection criterion. The work plan of a psychologist to provide career guidancehelp.1). 7-8 cells At this stage, the professional intentions of students are studied (psychodiagnostics, etc.).
2). 9 cells Individual vocational advice for those who want to enter secondary vocational institutions.
3). 10-11 cells. Oktant confidently chose a profession, outlined a plan for obtaining it and began the stage of pre-professional training - this is training in a specialized class, attending courses for applicants, the stage of a professional test (when a student tries to check whether he has the qualities of those professions that he wants to go after school).
23. Vocational education: tasks and methods of work. Decision making model forcareer choice. The purpose of education is to help in professional self-determination The methods of education proposed by Pryazhnikov and Ovchara. Main groups of methods. Conversation (the goal is to reveal the idea of the optant about the world of the profession). Discussions are done by the teacher, the head teacher for educational work and the psychologist. The main goal is to activate professional intentions and expand professional ideas of octants. For example, the topic is a person’s work path (easy or sorry, difficult -
hard, whether you need it today or not). 1.Excursion - obtaining information about a group of professions.2. Writing essays and essays by students about professions (for example, “The profession of my parents”). 3. Reading literature on professions. 4. Meeting with professionals (parents of students) 5. Carrying out career guidance games and trainings (participation of a professional consultant, psychologist). find 2-3 solutions in the form and indicate which one he himself would use. For example, 1) Your friend asks for advice on what decision to make. He is offered a job in an insolvent, "dishonest" company. 2) They are invited to work with a long probationary period and without compulsory employment. The goal is to expand ideas about the aspects of human activity and activate the independence of the octant when choosing a profession. model of the future profession. For example, the game "I am in the profession." Octant is invited to write down his most important qualities. For example: purpose, decency; further cards with empty cells are offered, on which the most important names of professions are written. From his capabilities, he must choose what he can implement in this profession. Type 3 - career guidance game or trtenig (Pryazhnikov, Samoukin). A person is invited to analyze and feel the advantages and disadvantages of certain professions, which
are brought into this game. It is proposed to create an ideal version of the company.
The main goal is to expand the understanding of the modern world
professions. And also to understand what features in it are
stable, and he must take them into account when choosing
profession.
22. Group and individual professional consultation: types, methods.
Vocational consultation is one of the areas of career guidance. Vocational counseling aims to assist in choosing a profession. Models can be different. Vocational consultation can be carried out both in group and in individual form.
group involves expanding the ideas of the optant about the world of the profession of their choice and training or games are held. training- exercises that help a teenager understand his inclinations, learn the inclinations of group members, form his own strategy in choosing a profession. Individual- diagnostics are revealed, assistance is provided in making a decision in choosing a profession. Group consultation: Kinds:
1. Information - an introduction to the world of the profession;
2. Diagnostic - using questionnaires (diagnostics of professional
intentions of schoolchildren) diagnosing interests and
inclinations. You can do your own data processing
pupils. The optant questionnaire allows you to identify
professional intentions and the degree of their sustainability.
Differential diagnostic questionnaire, questionnaire
professional readiness - it is advisable to carry out in
group, it is important to properly set up students for this
work (may be negativism, misunderstanding among
schoolchildren). These doubts must be removed.
3. Educational - it is advisable to consider the process model
making a decision on the choice of profession, talk about
classification of the profession according to Klimov.
4. Developing - games, group development trainings
general abilities. Means - conversation, discussion,
trainings, games, questionnaires, interviews. Individual professional consultation. Problems that are addressed to professional consultations. 1. Ignorance of the world of professions - use. DDO, OCG, to identify the class of profess, offer the optant to identify this class of profess
2. Ignorance of oneself - psychological strategy - tests for
intellect, comprehension, cognitive sphere, Eysenck.
3. Inadequate self-esteem is the reason for the wrong choice
profession or a person underestimates the bar of claims or overestimates
+ the problem of lagging behind in personal development.
4. Identification of the profession with the academic discipline.
Establishing rapport between consultant and optant. What brought you to the consultation? What do you want to know about yourself or your profession? It is necessary to obtain a lot of information about the optant, to achieve cooperation - the psychological readiness to choose a profession is the result of the work of the optant. How do you envision your future? Clarify the ideal and the real. - Connecting the future with the present. Klimov's professional counseling method.
1. Identification of professional intentions (where
the student is going to go after school).
2. Identification of interests (name your favorite educational
items).
3. Inclinations, favorite activities in your free time.
4. Abilities (for which subjects
abilities were shown; Do his inclinations match?
career choices).
24. Professional information: structure, sources of information, methodswork. Professional information is a type of assistance that allows you to expand a teenager's understanding of the world of professions and obtain specific information about the chosen profession. The main ways in which a teenager receives information about the world of the profession. one source - peers (incomplete source). 2 source - parents (incomplete source).
3rd source - information that he receives at school from a conversation with teachers (+, -). 4 source - mass media (+,-). 5source - professional advice (+ full
a source). The psychologist himself should have the following groups of knowledge:
1. The idea of the profession, how the profession differs from
specialties, specializations, qualifications. In what area
this specialty appears.
2. Have an idea about the profession as a system
professionally important qualities, professional tasks and
results of labor., i.e. professionalism. Have
idea of the possibility of professional development and
degree of demand for a particular profession.
3. Have an idea about the classification of professions and its
main structural components.
Author Strumilin S.G. - 1983 - he divides all professions into the following groups: 1 group - automatic T ores (strictly regulated with the same type, small operations during the day (assembler not in a watch factory, work related to the conveyor).
Group 2 - semi-automatic labor (labor operations
monotonous, but there may be a variety in the rhythm and style of activity
/working specialties that work on piecework conditions
wages/). Group 3 - template performing work (labor operations are determined by instructions, they are diverse and their rhythm depends on the person himself / seamstress, cook /). Group 4 - independent work within a specific labor task, freedom to choose methods of work and terms is provided (for example, the task is to do something: a psychologist, teacher, doctor). Group 5 - free, creative work (writers, composers - there are no specific labor tasks and ways to overcome them). And there is also a classification of Klimov's professions.
25. Methods for studying professional inclinations and orientation. 1993 Klimov divides professions according to the content of labor. I type of professions - distinguishes by the difference of object systems. 5 types: 1st type - human wildlife (forester, gardener, florist).
Type 2 - human technician, inanimate technique (programmer,
designer, engineer). Type 3 - a human sign system, the object is natural and artificial languages, conventional signs and symbols, numbers (accountant, statistician, translator). 4 type - human artistic image. Work with phenomena and factors of artistic reflection of reality (artists,
painters). Type 5 - man - man. The object of labor is the recognition, service, transformation of population groups or specific people. II - into classes on the basis of the goals of the professions (identified 3 classes). 1 - Gnostic professions (to recognize) (teacher-scientist, teacher-educator). 2 - transforming professions (transformation of the original object of labor) (primary school teacher - from a non-reader you need
teach everything, subject teacher). 3 - survey professions are their essence in finding new, reserve sides of the objects of labor (teachers-innovators). III - departments are distinguished on the basis of the main tools and means of labor. Professions are distinguished: manual labor (car washer), machine-manual labor (car driver), professions related to the use of automatic systems(locksmith), professions associated with the predominance of the means of labor (singer, pianist).
This classification allows you to expand the teenager's understanding of the world of professions and the structure of professions. The study of professional inclinations using DDO, Golomshtok's interest map. DDO (differential diagnostic questionnaire) - identification of professional inclinations and professional interests of students. The questionnaire was developed on the basis of Klimov's classification (5 types of division of the profession) on the basis of the subject or object with which a person interacts in the labor process.
The study of inclinations is carried out by analyzing the students' self-assessment of their professional preferences. DDO are used at all levels of the school, as well as in work with adults. Purpose: to obtain information about the interests, inclinations and professional orientation of the individual. Mark your choice with a "+" sign. The questions are selected and grouped so that in each column they refer to different groups of professions that differ in the main object of labor. Maxim, the sums of "+" in certain columns indicate the predominance of the interests and inclinations of the individual to certain groups of professions, i.e. to a specific professional area. Map of interests of Golomshtok- development based on the classifier of professions Klimov (by 5 types) and is intended for the study of professional inclinations. It is used in work with schoolchildren, students of middle classes and with adults. Professional inclination is a stable prof. interest. Contains 174 questions, which are grouped into 29 types of prof. activities. Unlike DDO and OPG, the card allows you to determine the profession or industry. Instructions: To help choose a profession, answer the question on the answer sheet under the same question number. put: if you just like it - one "+", if you really like it - "++", if you don't know - 0, if you don't like it - "-", if you really don't like it, then - "--".
After completion of the work, a quantitative and qualitative assessment is carried out. OPG methodology, D. Holland questionnaire. OPG (professional readiness questionnaire). Purpose: to determine the predisposition of a person to a certain professional field, taking into account desire, attitude and existing skills. Designed by Kabardova. Consists of 50 questions. We answer each question twice (I can, I wish). Made on the basis of the Klimov classifier and on the basis of self-esteem, skills and desires to perform one or another prof. activity. 1st answer - can I do it? 2nd answer - do I want to do it? Their answers are evaluated in a 3-point system: 0 - negative answer; 1 - indefinite; 2 - positive.
Processing: the number of points in each column is calculated - the total number of points. Then the most preferable sphere of the considered professional spheres is interrogated. OPG is used with DDO and CI (map of interests). Holland's checklist (classifier of professional personality types). Allocated 6 prof. types: realistic type - a guide to the present (mechanic,
electrician, photographer); intellectual - analytical, rational (botanist, physicist, scientist); social - social skills: teachers, doctors, schoolchildren; conventional - practical, conservative: accountant,
auditor, accountant. enterprising - leader (journalists, director); artistic - reliance on emotions, fantasy: music,
writer, decorator Instruction: Various professions are presented in pairs. In each pair, you need to find the profession that he prefers. Sum up "+". The largest number of "+" gives the result of belonging to a particular type.
27. Selection: search and selection of personnel. The selection consists in creating the necessary reserve of candidates for all positions and specialties, from which the organization selects the most suitable employees for it. This work should be carried out literally in all specialties - clerical, industrial, technical, administrative. Selection is usually carried out from external and internal sources. External recruitment tools include: publishing advertisements in newspapers and professional magazines, contacting employment agencies and management supply firms, sending contracted people to special courses at colleges. Some organizations invite local people to apply to Human Resources for possible future vacancies.
Most organizations prefer to conduct recruitment primarily within their organization. Promoting your employees is cheaper. This increases their interest, improves morale and strengthens the attachment of employees to the firm.
Personnel selection.On the At this stage, in the management of personnel planning, management selects the most suitable candidates from the pool created during the selection process. In most cases, the person who is best qualified to do the actual work in the position should be selected, not the candidate who appears to be the most suitable for promotion. An objective decision on the choice, depending on the circumstances, may be based on the education of the candidate, the level of his professional skills, previous work experience, personal qualities. For leadership positions, especially at a higher level, the skills of establishing interregional relations, as well as the compatibility of the candidate with superiors and with his subordinates, are of primary importance. Effective selection of personnel is one of the forms of preliminary quality control of human resources. The three most widely used methods for gathering information needed to make a selection decision are tests, interviews, and assessment centres. Interviews. Interviews are still the most widely used recruitment method. Even non-management employees are rarely hired without at least one interview. The selection of a high-ranking leader may require dozens of interviews that take several months. Research shows that structured interviews with standardized and recorded questions and answers increase the accuracy of this method.
26. The main activities of the personnel management service. The personnel manager acts as a protector of the interests of employees in front of other managers; adviser for the latter on problems of relations with subordinates; staff interaction coordinator. The most important element of personnel services is the personnel departments that manage its movement.
Their main functions are: personnel accounting; forecasting and planning the need for personnel; organization of recruitment, selection, training, retraining, relocation, dismissal of employees; studying and evaluating the personnel of managers, specialists and presenting recommendations to management on filling vacant positions by certain persons; formation of a personnel reserve and work with it according to special programs; participation in the certification of personnel and activities following its results. There are several blocks in the structure of personnel management.
1. block of personnel formation (staffing, study,
preparation, dismissal);
2. block of distribution and redistribution of personnel
(primary placement, dismissal);
3. block for creating conditions for the use of personnel (security
labor, organization of medical and social
services, development of incentive methods);
4. development of standards for personnel (productivity,
time consumption, wages);
5. divisions for creation and improvement
structures and management systems that implement them
design and management of formation processes.
But today in Russia With personnel is dispersed mainly between different services and divisions. The work of personnel services has two directions: tactical and strategic. The first carries out current personnel work: analysis of the state and planning of staffing needs, development of staffing tables, recruitment. Evaluation and selection of personnel; testing; planning for the next personnel transfers and layoffs, current accounting and control, training, retraining and advanced training, formation of a reserve for promotion, promotion of organizational values and education of personnel in their spirit. Today, the main activity of personnel services is the formation of labor resources: planning the need for them and organizing practical recruitment activities, conflict resolution, and social policy. The essence of personnel work is to determine what exactly, by whom, how and with the help of what should be done in practice at the moment in the field of personnel management. The solution of these daily tasks is based on administrative methods. The strategic direction of the work of personnel services is focused on the formation of the personnel policy of the organization - a system of theoretical views, ideas, requirements, practical measures in the field of work with personnel, its main forms and methods.
28.Motivation of personnel activity and technology of its formation. In order to connect a person to the solution of a particular problem, one must be able to find the motivation that would prompt him to action. In the management of the household activity for the first time the problem of motives and incentives was posed by Adam Smith, who believed that people are controlled by selfish motives, the constant desire of people to improve their financial situation. Smith had in mind the motivation of the entrepreneur, the motivation of the workers did not interest him. The American theorist Taylor filled this gap. He believed that the workers are controlled only by the instincts of satisfaction. physiological needs. Everyone works out of necessity, strives to work less. He believed that the coercive power of the administrator is the main engine of production and the main motivation for work. Time wages do not allow the employee to manage his time, while the administrator sets the pace of work, prohibiting unauthorized stops. The surplus of the labor force, underemployment of the population were a powerful stimulus for increasing labor productivity and influenced the motivation of workers. In the 1950s and 1960s, this method exhausted itself. In the 1930s, a humanistic direction in management emerged in the United States (Elton Mayo), which was enriched with research. Maslow. Maslow proposed a classification of needs.
1. Basic physiological needs - food, water, sleep, housing, sexual satisfaction. basic needs. An important stimulus to satisfaction is money; prospect of economic viability.
2. The need for security - avoidance of injury, illness.
They respond to incentives such as guaranteed work, social.
insurance, pensions.
3. Social needs - constant contact with yourself
similar - sociality - Mayo.
4. The need for respect - status, prestige, self-respect,
self confidence.
5. The need for self-realization - full realization
potential, creativity.
The English scientists Woodcon and Francis built tables where they said that there would be no effect from "the main motivators, if it is not decided with" motivation regulators ". Motivation Regulators: Working environment (workplace, noise level, cleanliness,
design, canteen), Remuneration (salary, other payments, additional benefits, medical care). 3. Feeling of security (respect, approval of others). Main motivators: Personal development (responsibility, experimentation, new experiences, learning opportunities, careers).
Feeling of belonging (shared decision-making,
consultations, feeling of usefulness at work). "Interest and challenge" (interesting projects, developing experience, age, responsibility).
Factors 1,2,3 can act as demotivators if employees are not satisfied with them, factors 4,5,6 can increase the interest of employees and provide the organization with major achievements.
29.Corporate culture. The main ways and methods of its formation. Organizational culture is the shared principles, behaviors, values, attitudes of people that they adhere to. The content of organizational culture Harris, Moran 10 characteristics: awareness of oneself and one's place in the organization; communication system and language of communication; appearance, clothing and presentation of oneself for work; analyzes what and how people eat; awareness of time, attitude to it and use of it; relationship between people; values and norms; belief in something and relationship or disposition towards something; the process of employee development and learning; work ethic and motivation.
The manifestation of organizational culture occurs through communication. The content of organizational culture influences the way behaviors, conversations, emotions, etc. are developed. Culture depends on the culture of the leader. Forms of maintaining organizational culture. Perhaps by including the management style, redesigning roles in the organization, changing incentive criteria, changing the emphasis of personnel policy, changing symbols and rituals, changing the objects of attention from managers (the rite of reinforcement is the best turner, the rite of unity is the celebration of dates, holidays, going to barbecues etc.)
Approaches to Formation of organizational culture.
30. Types of conflicts in the enterprise, ways to prevent and resolve them. one type - conflict between departments or subdivisions of the enterprise - this is a conflict of functional responsibilities
- solved by job descriptions. Type 2 - conflict within departments or intragroup - most often arises over issues of power or salary - is resolved by working with an informal leader, and transparency of financial reporting (but more often reporting is not
transparent (commercial secret) and becomes the property of all). 3rd type - interpersonal conflict, features - transition business communication on a personal level (didn't have time to do it - you're lazy), the solution is the transition from mutual attachments to the main problem. Types of conflict
personalities :
Type 1 - rude - tank - rushing to the breach, does not hear others, rude forms of communication. Type 2 - rude - screamer - solves all issues with the help of a cry (angry, frightened and upset). Type 3 - grenade - it is not known when it will explode (it will explode when a feeling of helplessness). Type 4 - a pessimist - gets the fact that he sees everything in a bad light. Type 5 - overly accommodating - promises a lot, but very often offers his help, but does not. Type 6 - the complainant - constantly informs management about everything. Type 7 - know-it-all - feels superior to others. Type 8 - false altruist - does good and deep down regrets it (the most dangerous type). Prevention of conflicts. Conflict prevention as and its prevention as a whole is served by such measures as: the correct selection and placement of personnel;
continuous improvement of wages in accordance with the changing situation; the rhythm of work, attention to the working conditions and life of workers; improving the methods of managing the organization, taking into account the changing situation; timely provision of resources, their rational and fair distribution;
compliance with the rights and obligations of employees, especially managers, strict control over respect for rights and fulfillment of duties, maintaining high labor discipline;
clear distribution of production tasks, powers and responsibilities; creation of formal and informal authority
leader; formation of favorable interpersonal relationships;
strengthening the collective norms of self-regulation of the behavior of employees, team building; paying special attention to rumors, gossip, petty quarrels, which are usually indicators of unloaded workers and create fertile ground for conflicts; Ensuring uniform workload for all employees. the leading role in dealing with conflicts is played by the immediate supervisor of the unit in which the conflict is brewing or already developing.
The importance of theory in psychological counseling, as in other areas of psychological practice, cannot be overestimated. It can be said that an attempt to expertly help another person in resolving his problems without relying on a system of theoretical views is like flying without reference points. In psychological counseling, the role of a map is played by personality theory, which opens up a broad perspective of understanding the client's problems and indicates effective methods for resolving them. Theory helps the counselor to formulate dynamic hypotheses that clarify problems for the client and makes them feel safe when faced with the chaotic, disorganized inner world of some clients. Bramer, Shostrom (1982) emphasize that a consultant who has not mastered the theoretical foundations of his profession, who has not become familiar with the research carried out in this area, will not be able to do anything for the client, except for the use of private technology.
Each theory performs four main functions: generalizes the accumulated information; makes complex phenomena more understandable; predicts the consequences of various circumstances; contributes to the search for new facts (George, Cristiani, 1990).
These functions fit well with any theory underlying counseling practice. The theory helps the consultant to generalize the experience of working with a wide variety of clients, to understand the nature of most of their problems and the forms of manifestation of conflicts, and contributes to the effective application of specific methods. Thanks to theoretical training, the consultant can put forward hypotheses in his practical work and anticipate the results of counseling.
Each consultant "constructs" his own theory on the basis of practice, which most often relies on already known theoretical paradigms, or orientations (psychoanalytic, behavioral-cognitive, existential-humanistic). With the accumulation of experience, the theoretical base is constantly being adjusted, expanded, and strengthened. What determines the choice of one or another theoretical orientation? First of all, it is determined by the consultant's point of view on human nature. Each consultant is free to choose one or another concept as the basis of practice, depending on the characteristics of his personality, worldview, theoretical and psychological sympathies. At the same time, let us emphasize the incorrectness of the statements about the truth of the postulates of any single psychotherapeutic school in spite of other schools. The results of numerous studies show that in practice, with a focus on any direction, it is possible to achieve similar effectiveness of counseling. It is not so much the theory itself that is decisive, but the maturity of the consultant's personality and his professional training, which implies a high integration of theoretical knowledge and practical skills.
Eclectic counseling is currently spreading around the world, which is an attempt to integrate the best aspects of various schools. Of course, this does not mean a set of different theoretical principles, views, or an accumulation of methods and techniques that have proven practical effectiveness, regardless of the context of possible application. Eclectic counseling relies on the systematic integration of several theoretical approaches in an effort to find a common ground and test how the new system "works" in practice. We can say that the creation of an eclectic approach to counseling is the result of all professional activity. Most professionals who have been working in the field of psychological counseling and psychotherapy for a long time create their own theoretical system, usually eclectic, most appropriate to the personality and worldview of each of them.
Most of the theories of counseling were developed exclusively by practitioners, based on their own experience and observations. So far, most of the theories are, to some extent, incomplete, and none of the theories is sufficient to apply to all situations. Even the same theory for the same client at some point may be inadequate. Consultants should choose their theoretical positions carefully and review them regularly.
Some theoretical models are more complete than others, and successful consultants know which theories are superior and for what reasons. Hansen, Stevic & Warner (1986) list five features of a good theory.
- 1. Clarity, ease of understanding and informativeness. The theory is consistent and consistent.
- 2. Comprehensiveness. It provides an explanation for a wide range of different phenomena.
- 3. Certainty and heuristics. It, by virtue of its logic, generates a research plan.
- 4. Concreteness in the choice of means to achieve the desired result. The theory contains a way to achieve the desired result.
- 5. Usefulness to its adherents. It provides reference points for research and practical work.
In addition to these five qualities, a good theory is one that does not conflict with the consultant's personal worldview. Shertzer and Stone (1974) believe that counseling theory should fit the counselor like a good suit. Some theories, like costumes, need to be adjusted. Therefore, good consultants recognize the importance of alternating theoretical approaches. Counselors who want to be versatile and effective must learn many counseling theories and know how to apply each without violating its intrinsic integrity (Auvenshine & Noffsinger, 1984).
The value of the theory. Theory is the foundation of successful counseling. It requires the counselor to be careful and creative in the context of deeply personal relationships for the purpose of growth and understanding (Gladding, 1990). Theory influences how client information is conceptualized, how interpersonal relationships develop, how professional ethics are observed, and how counselors see themselves as professionals (Carey, Neukrug, McAuliffe, Pratt & Lowell, 1990). Without a theoretical justification, consultants act haphazardly, by trial and error, and risk taking the wrong step and not achieving results. Brammer, Abrego, and Shostrom (1993) emphasize the pragmatic implications for consultants of carefully crafted theory. Theory helps to explain what happens in the counseling process and also allows the counselor to predict, evaluate and improve the results of their own actions. Theory provides the framework for scientific observation in the counseling process. Theorizing stimulates the production of new ideas and the establishment of a unity of views on counseling. Therefore, counseling theory can be very practical in helping to make sense of counselors' observations.
Boy & Pine (1983) flesh out the practical value of theory by suggesting that, in counseling activities, theory primarily answers the question "how?" rather than "why?", providing a structure within which counselors can operate. Theory-based consultants are better suited to their profession because they have a reason to do what they do. Boy and Pine identified six functions of theory that help consultants in practice.
- 1. Theory helps consultants to discover the inner unity and interconnection of the various phenomena of life.
- 2. Theory forces consultants to explore relationships that would otherwise be out of sight.
- 3. Theory provides guidance to consultants in their work and helps them evaluate themselves as professionals.
- 4. Theory helps consultants focus on the right information and tells them what they should be looking for.
- 5. Theory helps counselors assist clients in effectively changing their behavior.
- 6. Theory helps counselors evaluate both old and new approaches to the counseling process. It is the starting base on which new counseling approaches are built.
"The main criterion for evaluating any theory of counseling is how well it provides an explanation of what happens in the process of counseling" (Kelly, 1988, pp. 212-213). The value of theories as ways of organizing information "depends on the extent to which they correspond to the reality of human life" (Young, 1988, p. 336).
Purity of theory and eclecticism. At the beginning of its history, consulting was a profession in which purity of theory (adherence to one theory) was a condition and an urgent need for consultants looking for work. It was important that counselors could identify their activities in terms of one of less than half a dozen possible theories (psychoanalysis, behaviorism, client-centered approach, etc.). However, with the flood of new theories - cognitive, behavioral, and affective - formulated in the 1960s, the idea of adherence to one specific theory began to lose popularity and significance. The development of microskills training (teaching people skills that are common to all theories of care) has accelerated the move away from narrow theoretical positions. Eclectic consulting has taken their place.
Many professional consultants (about 60-70%) consider themselves eclectic in their use of theory and methods (Lazarus & Beutler, 1993). This means that they use different theories and methods to meet the needs of their customers. As needs change, counselors must move away from one theory and move on to another (a phenomenon called style change counseling). Change of style depends on the level of development of the client (Ivey & Goncalves, 1988). To be effective, consultants must consider how far clients have progressed in their structural development (to use Jean Piaget's terminology). For example, a client who is not environmentally oriented may need a therapeutic approach that focuses on "emotions, bodily sensations, and experience based on momentary experiences ("here and now")", while a client with a more developed level is better a "formal-operational" approach that emphasizes thinking about one's actions will do (Ivey & Goncalves, 1988, p. 410). The main thing is that both consultants and theories correspond to the level at which the clients are, helping them develop as individuals as a whole.
An eclectic approach can be risky if the consultant is not familiar enough with all the processes involved. Sometimes the unintelligible approach of poorly trained consultants is sarcastically called the "electric" approach; such consultants try to apply any and all of the available methods indiscriminately. The problem with electric orientation is that counselors often do more harm than good if they have little or no understanding of what it means to "help" a client.
To overcome this problem, McBride and Martin (1990) propose a hierarchy of eclectic techniques and point out the importance of a solid theoretical foundation as a guide. The lower or first level of eclecticism is actually syncretism. It is an amorphous, non-systemic process of bringing together unrelated clinical concepts. This approach occurs in settings where budding counselors are forced to formulate their own counseling theories without first testing their empirical models in practice. The second level of eclecticism is traditional. It combines "an ordered combination of comparable traits from various sources into a harmonious whole" (English & English, 1956, p. 168). It is more elaborate than syncretism, and theoretically more developed.
At the third level, eclecticism is described as professional or theoretical, or as theoretical integrationism (Lazaurus & Beutler, 1993; Simon, 1989). This type of eclecticism requires consultants to master at least two theories in order to attempt any combination. The problems with this approach are that it assumes a certain degree of equality of theories (which may not be) and the existence of a criterion "to determine which portions or parts of each of the theories to keep or delete" (Lazaurus & Beutler, 1Q93 , p. 382). It differs from traditional models in that the traditional eclectic approach does not require the possession of any theory.
The last level of eclecticism, called technical eclecticism, is presented in the work of Arnold Lazarus (Lazarus, 1967). According to this approach, procedures from various theories are selected and put into practice "without necessarily attributing them to the theories from which they are generated" (Lazaurus & Beutler, 1993, p. 384). The idea is that client work is actually about methods, not theories. Therefore, when the situation permits, after a proper assessment of the client's condition, counselors can use behavioral methods (such as confidence building) in combination with existential methods (such as confrontation in an argument about the meaning of life).
This latter approach is in line with Cavanagh's (1990) approach, which proposes an eclectic approach to counseling as sound. This approach requires counselors to have (1) a sound knowledge and understanding of the counseling theories being applied; (2) a basic unifying philosophy of human behavior that brings together the disparate parts of various theories into a meaningful collage; and (3) flexible means of accommodating, approaching the client, rather than the other way around. Consultants following this model can work pragmatically and effectively in an eclectic framework. For a truly sound eclectic consultant, the critical variables are theory and a keen sense of which approach to use, when, where, and how (Harman, 1977).
