September 1 marks the 40th anniversary of the overthrow of royal power and the proclamation of the Libyan Arab Republic, which on March 2, 1977 was renamed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
Libya, officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, is an Arab state located in northern Africa. It borders with Algeria and Tunisia in the west, Sudan, Chad and Niger in the south, and Egypt in the east. In the north it is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea.
Territory- 1.76 million sq. km (85% is desert). The total length of the country's Mediterranean coast is 1860 km.
Capital- Tripoli.
Big cities- Benghazi, Tobruk, Misurata.
Administrative division: Libya is divided into 26 administrative units - shaabi (provinces), which in turn are divided into communes (mahallas).
Population- 6.156 million people (2007 estimate), city residents - 77.4%.
The main peoples are Arabs 90% (with Libyan Arabs 33%, Cyrenaic Arabs 27%, Egyptian Arabs 10%, Palestinian Arabs 1% of the total population of the country); Arabic-speaking Berbers 4.4%; Nafusi-speaking Berbers 2.7%, Bedouins 1.5%, Punjabis 1%, Domari gypsies 0.6%, Italians 0.4%, Serbs 0.4%, Tuaregs 0.2%.
Official language- Arabic.
State religion- Sunni Islam, the basis of legislation is Sharia.
Story. Until 1911, Libya was part of the Ottoman Empire, from 1911 to 1942 it was an Italian colony, and in 1943, as a result of the defeat of the Italo-German coalition forces, it was occupied by England and France.
On December 24, 1951, in accordance with the UN General Assembly resolution (1949), Libya was proclaimed an independent sovereign state - the United Kingdom of Libya, led by King Idris I.
On September 1, 1969, a group of nationalist officers of the Libyan army led by Muammar Gaddafi, members of the Free Unionist Socialist Officers Movement, overthrew the monarchical regime and proclaimed the Libyan Arab Republic (LAR). In March 1977, the “Declaration on the Establishment of People's Power” was adopted, announcing the creation of a “jamahiriyya” (state of the masses) in the country.
State structure. Determined by the provisions of the “third world theory” of Muammar Gaddafi. Its essence lies in the implementation of the principle of “direct democracy”, i.e. direct participation of the people in governing the country without such institutions as the president, parliament, government and parties, which were officially abolished in the SNLAD.
Head of State- Muammar Gaddafi. Formally, he does not hold government positions, remaining only the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed People's Forces (SNLAD Armed Forces). Its legal status is determined by the Charter of Revolutionary Legality (approved at an emergency session of the Supreme People's Congress in March 1990), according to which Muammar Gaddafi is the “leader of the revolution” and “the source of revolutionary legality.”
Functions of government is carried out by the Supreme People's Committee (SPC), headed by a secretary, and by the ministries - by the Main People's Committees (GPC), which includes representatives of local people's committees responsible for this industry at the commune level.
Legislature. The General People's Congress (GPC), which meets once a year. The permanent body of the VNK is the General Secretariat.
Economy. In terms of proven oil reserves (estimated at 39.1 billion barrels), Libya ranks 1st in Africa and 5th among OPEC members (after Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait and the UAE). There are large reserves of natural gas (1.43 trillion cubic meters, 3rd place in Africa).
The leading sectors of the economy are oil and gas production, oil and gas refining and petrochemical industries, which account for 95% of export earnings. Light industry is represented mainly by small enterprises producing fabrics, sewing clothes and shoes, and tanning leather. The food industry is relatively underdeveloped.
In terms of per capita income (more than 6 thousand dollars per year), Libya ranks one of the first places in Africa.
International trade. Libya's leading foreign trade partners: Italy, Germany, USA and Spain. Foreign trade turnover in 2008 amounted to $89.9 billion (exports - $69.3 billion). The basis of exports is oil, petroleum products and petrochemicals. The main import items are passenger cars, machine tools, oil equipment, pipes, electrical equipment, lumber and other building materials, industrial and food products, various finished products, as well as chemicals and raw materials.
Foreign policy. Libya is a member of most major international organizations - the UN, the League of Arab States (LAS), the African Union, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Libya is the chairman of the Arab Maghreb Union and a member of the Community of Sahara-Sahel States, which it patronizes.
In July 2004, the WTO decided to begin formal negotiations on Libya's accession to it.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
On March 2, 1977, the Declaration on the Establishment of People's Power (Jamahiriyya) was adopted. The country was renamed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. The SRC and the cabinet were abolished. According to the constitution, the General People's Congress (GPC), which was formed from people's congresses and committees in which the population of the country directly participates, became the supreme body of power. Gaddafi, who served as Secretary General of the General People's Congress, became head of state. The country has intensified measures to crowd out private capital from retail and wholesale trade and eliminate private ownership of real estate. Gaddafi declared a foreign policy aimed at providing active assistance to “revolutionary movements and regimes opposing imperialism and colonialism” and provided support for international terrorism. In 1979, he resigned, declaring his intention to devote himself to developing the ideas of the Libyan revolution. Nevertheless, Gaddafi, who is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief and leader of the revolution, concentrates real power in his hands.
In the 1970s, oil prices on world markets increased significantly, which led to the accumulation of significant funds in Libya, which was a supplier of oil to Western countries. Government revenues from oil exports went to finance urban development and the creation of a modern social security system for the population. At the same time, to increase Libya's international prestige, huge sums were spent on creating a well-armed modern army. In the Middle East and North Africa, Libya acted as a bearer of the ideas of Arab nationalism and an uncompromising opponent of Israel and the United States. The sharp fall in oil prices in the mid-1980s led to a significant weakening of Libya. Meanwhile, the US administration accused Libya of aiding international terrorism, and on April 15, 1986, the US bombed several cities in Libya.
In 1992, sanctions were applied against Libya after Libyan citizens blew up two passenger airliners. She denied all accusations and refused to extradite her citizens suspected of committing sabotage. At the end of 1993, Gaddafi proposed that the two Libyans accused of the Lockerbie bombing should be tried in any country in the world, but the court should either be Muslim, or the court should consist entirely of Muslims. The Libyan leader’s proposal was rejected, and starting in 1992, UN sanctions against Libya were renewed every six months, including the cessation of military-technical cooperation and air traffic, the freezing of Libyan holdings, a ban on the import of certain types of equipment for the oil industry into Libya, etc. The International Court in The Hague pronounced a verdict on Chad's right to the Aouzou strip, occupied by Libyan troops in 1973; Libya withdrew its troops from this area in 1994.
In September 1995, as a sign of dissatisfaction with the peace agreements previously concluded between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Israel, Gaddafi announced the expulsion of 30 thousand Palestinians living there from Libya.
In 1999, the EU lifted the trade embargo and most sanctions on Libya (while maintaining the arms embargo only). In 2006, diplomatic relations between Libya and the United States were resumed. In 2007, under an agreement with the EU, a group of doctors accused of deliberately infecting 400 children with AIDS was released. In 2008, the United States pledged to compensate for the damage caused to Libya by the bombing of its territory, and Italy paid compensation to Libya for damage caused by colonial rule ($5 million).
In 2011, popular unrest began in Libya, which later turned into a civil war. The center of the uprising was the port city of Benghazi. As a result of the civil war and foreign intervention, power over most of the country's territory was gained by the Transitional National Council, recognized at that time only by the West. On August 3, 2011, he officially renamed the country the State of Libya, returning to the state the former flag used by the Libyan monarchy led by King Idris from 1951 to 1969.
On August 8, 2012, the National Transitional Council, which had governed the country since the end of the Libyan civil war, officially transferred power to the General National Congress. Since the end of the civil war in Libya, armed clashes have periodically broken out between various forces.
Government system Legal system General characteristics Civil and related branches of law Criminal law and process Judicial system. Control bodies Literature
State in North Africa.
Territory - 1.76 thousand sq. km. The capital is Tripoli.
Population - 4.4 million people. (1995), 98% are Arabs.
The official language is Arabic.
The state religion is Sunni Islam.
In ancient times, Libya was under the rule of the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Romans, and Byzantium. In the 7th century captured by Arab tribes. In the 16th century captured by the Turks and until the beginning of the 20th century. was part of the Ottoman Empire. Since 1911 it has been a colony of Italy; in 1943, as a result of the defeat of the troops of the Italian-German coalition, it was occupied by England and France. In 1951, Libya was proclaimed an independent sovereign state - the "United Kingdom of Libya". On September 1, 1969, a group of Libyan army officers led by M. Gaddafi, who were part of the Free Unionist Socialist Officers Movement, overthrew the monarchical regime and proclaimed the Libyan Arab Republic (LAR). In March 1977, it was renamed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (SNLAD).
State structure
Libya is a unitary state. Administrative division - 380 communes (mahallas).
The state-political structure of Libya is distinctive. There is no constitution; the Koran is considered the “basic law of society”. The official ideological doctrine is the “third world theory” of M. Gaddafi, the main provisions for
In March 1977, the previous state structure, including the government and political parties, as well as parliament in its classical form, were officially abolished. Primary People's Assemblies (PNA), uniting the entire adult population of the country of the corresponding commune (village, quarter), are endowed with the right of legislative initiative, resolving issues of economic and cultural life at the local level, as well as the right to make recommendations on issues of domestic and foreign policy of the country as a whole. Each people's assembly is headed by a secretariat, consisting of a secretary, his deputy, secretaries for the affairs of people's assemblies, people's committees and trade unions. The executive bodies are people's committees elected by people's assemblies at the appropriate level.
The highest legislative body of Libya is the General People's Congress (GPC), which automatically includes secretaries of the GNA, heads of sectoral people's committees and representatives of mass public organizations (about 800-1000 people in total). The work of the VNC is carried out in the form of sessions, which usually meet once a year. The VNK adopts various laws, resolutions on issues of the country's domestic and foreign policy, forms the Supreme People's Committee (VNKom), which performs the functions of the government, and also appoints to senior government positions. The VNK itself does not have the right of legislative initiative, but proceeds from the recommendations of people's assemblies. The permanent body of the VNK is the General Secretariat, consisting of the secretary of the VNK, his deputy and three secretaries for various issues. It is entrusted with organizational and technical functions (monitoring the implementation of decisions of the Supreme People's Commissariat, communication with the secretariats of local people's assemblies, preparing materials for the next session of the Supreme People's Commissariat, etc.).
The highest executive body (government) of the SNLAD is the Supreme People's Committee (VNKom), the composition of which is approved by the General People's Congress on the proposal of the revolutionary leadership. The All-Russian People's Commissariat includes the secretary who heads it, the heads of the main people's committees (MPC) - ministries, as well as the chairman of the Supreme Court, the director of the Central Bank and a number of other persons. The VNKom as a whole is responsible to the revolutionary leadership and the VNK for the general policy of the state, and its members are responsible for the work of the relevant sectoral main people's committees, which they head. Delegates of the VNKom have the right to hear members of the VNKom and demand their resignation. The appointment of new members of the VNKom and their dismissal are approved at meetings of the VNKom by open voting of delegates.
Each State People's Committee (ministry) unites all members of the people's committees responsible for a given industry at the commune level (the number of members of each State Committee is 380) and carries out coordinating functions. All people's committees from VNKom to the grassroots form a single executive vertical.
The “revolutionary leadership,” created in 1979 with the goal of “separating the revolution from power,” consists of M. Gaddafi and three other figures who led the revolution on September 1, 1969; formally it is not part of the structure of government bodies. At the same time, the “revolutionary leadership” is the country’s highest political body, shaping Libya’s domestic and foreign policy and controlling the activities of the VNK and VNKom. The head of the Libyan Jamahiriya, Colonel M. Gaddafi, called the “leader of the September 1 revolution,” is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the country’s armed forces. Without holding any other official positions, M. Gaddafi is placed, as it were, above government structures, he is not elected and is not accountable to anyone, and has unlimited powers. Without the sanction of M. Gaddafi, not a single important state or political decision is made.
To control the activities of the bodies of “people’s power” and the implementation of leadership decisions, as well as to fight the opposition, “revolutionary committees” were created, reporting directly to M. Gaddafi.
Legal system
general characteristics
Libya is one of the countries with a highly Islamized legal system. The basis of legislation is Sharia. A number of branches of law in the colonial and post-colonial period were formed under the strong influence of Italian legislation.
After the 1969 revolution, the official goal was to build a “truly socialist society” based on Islamic values in the country. As part of this course, a number of important socio-economic transformations were carried out: the oil industry, foreign banks and companies were nationalized, the minimum wage was increased, free education and medical care were introduced, private ownership of real estate was limited, and a significant part of domestic and foreign trade passed into the hands of the state.
In modern times, Libya has become one of the first countries in the world to proclaim a course towards the revival of Islamic law and the inclusion of its principles, institutions and norms in legislation. In 1971, the Libyan Revolutionary Command Council proclaimed the Islamization of the country's legal system. It was decided that all newly adopted laws should be based on the principles of Sharia and the current legislation should be reviewed from this angle. The commissions created for this purpose are still working.
In 1972, zakat laws were introduced, prohibiting interest on loans between private individuals and punishing theft and robbery by amputation of an arm or an arm and a leg, which were touted as the first step towards the “revival of true Islam.” Over the next two years, laws were passed to punish adultery and drinking alcohol, based on the conclusions of Maliki Muslim law. In 1977, the Koran was declared the “law of society”, and in 1984 the Law on Marriage and Divorce was adopted, fixing the norms of Sharia.
Since the late 1980s. in Libya, some liberalization began in the economic and political spheres (encouraging cooperative forms of ownership, private trade, releasing some political prisoners, allowing free entry and exit from the country). In June 1988, on the initiative of the head of the SNLAD, an emergency session of the All-Russian People's Congress proclaimed the "Green Declaration of Human Rights." At the same time, the Cleansing Law was adopted in 1994, on the basis of which a campaign against corruption and economic crimes was launched.
In addition to Muslim law and the laws adopted by the GNC, there is another, very specific source of law in Libya. The “Charter of Revolutionary Legality”, adopted at the session of the All-Russian People's Congress in March 1990, proclaims that the source of the legitimacy of people's assemblies and people's committees is the “legitimacy” of the Libyan revolution itself, and the directives of its leader, M. Gaddafi, are binding.
In rural areas, traditional patriarchal relations dominate. Common law also applies here.
Civil and related branches of law
Private law in Libya, as in other countries in the region, is mixed. All relationships of personal status (marriage, family, legal capacity, guardianship, inheritance) are regulated by legislation based on Islamic law, and trade relations by legislation reflecting predominantly European legal traditions.
After the 1969 revolution, the new leadership nationalized foreign banks and insurance companies, as well as companies involved in the sale of petroleum products and gas on the domestic market. Property belonging to Italian colonists was sequestered. With the proclamation of the SNLAD in 1977, active measures were taken in the country to limit the scale of activity of the large and middle national bourgeoisie and eliminate the institution of private ownership of real estate. A foreign trade monopoly was introduced, private trade was practically eliminated, and surplus real estate was alienated. In 1978, a campaign was carried out to “seize” industrial enterprises; Self-government bodies were created from representatives of workers and employees. Former owners of private enterprises are excluded from owning and managing them. As a result, the share of the public sector in industry reached 90%. Socio-economic development in the country until the mid-1980s. was carried out on a planned basis (on five-year plans). Until 1989, it was widely practiced to provide subsidies to maintain stable and low prices for basic consumer goods and financial support for state-owned enterprises.
Since the late 1980s. in Libya, steps are being taken to liberalize the economic sphere and revive small and medium-sized private businesses. The privatization of wholesale and retail trade is being carried out, cooperative forms of ownership are being encouraged, the establishment of private banks is allowed, people's joint-stock banks are being actively created in the regions, designed to promote the development of the productive sector locally, the establishment of joint-stock companies has begun, and a decision has been made to privatize unprofitable state-owned enterprises.
The attitude towards foreign capital has also changed, which they are again trying to attract to the country’s economy. The sources of law in the field of foreign economic activity are the following acts: Commercial Code of Libya; Foreign Investment Law 1997; Law on the Establishment of the Committee for Promotion and Guarantee of Foreign Investments, 1997; Law on the Possible Conclusion of a Contract Without Tender, 1972; Customs Act 1972; Customs Tariffs of 1974, as well as several other laws, regulations and instructions on the collection of taxes on foreign companies.
Libyan land law is very original. On May 4, 1986, Law No. 7 abolished land ownership in the Jamahiriya and introduced the concept of “land use” (before the adoption of this law in the SNLAD, land ownership could be: state, cooperative, private and waqf). In accordance with this law, legal entities and individuals receive the right to use agricultural lands, and these territories can be acquired through “seizure”. It means cultivation of the land, i.e. a person who begins to cultivate a particular plot automatically acquires ownership rights. He can involve not only his family members, but also other people in his work. The owner, however, cannot sell or lease the land, he is only allowed to pass it on by inheritance. Each Libyan family (parents and their minor children) has the right to one piece of land, the size of which is not specifically specified. Control over the distribution of the land fund is carried out by the Socialist Real Estate Registration and Documentation Service under the State Tax Committee of Justice and Public Security.
In relation to non-agricultural land and housing stock, along with state property, the right of private property is also officially recognized. Both individuals and private companies, organizations and cooperatives have the right to own real estate. The right to rent out real estate is granted only to privileged categories of persons. Each Libyan family has the right to only one housing unit, the size of which is not limited.
In addition to the mentioned types of real estate ownership, the traditional Muslim law system of waqf land ownership has been preserved in Libya, with the only difference being that private waqfs that existed before the revolution were abolished.
During the period of Italian and English domination, labor relations in Libya received virtually no special regulation. The first significant labor acts were adopted after independence. Labor legislation was then codified (Labor Code of 1970).
Social security law has reached a high level of development. After the revolution of 1969, which proclaimed the task of building a “truly socialist society” in the country, measures were taken to improve the material status of the working masses: the minimum wage was increased, rent was reduced, and free medical care and education were introduced. The activities of the social insurance system are determined by Law No. 13 of 1980. The Main National Social Insurance Corporation provides financial support to employees of both public and private enterprises and organizations who have completed the appropriate documents and regularly paid contributions. Many social programs are financed by oil revenues.
Criminal law and procedure
In Libya, the Criminal Code of 1953 is applied, which was significantly influenced by the Italian Criminal Code of 1930, as well as the Egyptian Criminal Code of 1937. The Libyan Code reproduces the provisions of the Italian Criminal Code on issues of causation, forms of guilt, circumstances excluding criminal liability, and the use of security measures . The influence of the Egyptian Code is found in the interpretation of the provisions on complicity, stages of crime, and liability for aggregation of crimes.
After the decision to Islamize the country's legal system in Libya, laws were passed restoring a number of important norms of Muslim criminal law: on responsibility for theft and robbery (1972), on punishment for adultery (1973), on punishment for false accusations of adultery (1974) and on responsibility for drinking alcohol (1974). These acts allowed the use of the most authoritative works of the Maliki school of Islamic law in establishing responsibility for these crimes.
All these acts were based on Muslim tort law. In particular, the punishment for theft is amputation of the right hand, and for robbery - the right hand and left leg. A person who commits adultery is subject to corporal punishment of 100 lashes, and for falsely accusing another person of such a crime, the corporal punishment is 80 lashes. Drinking alcoholic beverages entails corporal punishment of 40 lashes, and only Muslims bear such responsibility, while followers of other religions are punished with imprisonment and a fine. This legislation applies only when all the elements of the crime committed meet the conditions established by Muslim tort law. Otherwise, the guilty person is liable under the Criminal Code of 1953.
According to the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1953, cases involving crimes punishable by death are heard in the criminal division of the Court of Appeal. The Code provides for mandatory review of death sentences by the Court of Cassation, but also stipulates that it must be requested by the defense lawyer or the convicted person himself. Judges may reduce punishment based on mercy. All death sentences require approval by the Secretariat of the General People's Congress.
When applying a number of published in the 1970s. Criminal laws that enshrine the requirements of Sharia use Islamic legal rules of evidence.
After the 1969 revolution, many criminal cases of a political nature were considered by various kinds of special courts and even non-judicial bodies. Neither of them were usually bound by criminal procedural law.
Judicial system. Control authorities
For a number of years after the revolution of September 1, 1969, Libya maintained the previous judicial system, provided for by the Judicial System Law of 1962. In 1973, the Law on the Unification of the Judicial System was adopted, in accordance with which the previously independent Sharia courts were eliminated, and the country’s judicial system began to include three main links - summary courts, first instance courts and appellate courts. In addition, the Supreme Court and special courts for remote areas remained. At its core, such a system was preserved even after the adoption of the current Law on the Judicial System of 1976, which regulates the organization of all these courts, except the Supreme Court, the status of which is determined by a separate law (1982). Under it, the Supreme Court is headed by a Chief Justice and is composed of appointed counsellors. The Supreme Court has several chambers, each consisting of three or five counsellors. The Supreme Court resolves disputes about the jurisdiction of judicial bodies, and also acts as a cassation authority that considers complaints against decisions of lower courts.
The summary courts, trial courts and remote area courts hear civil, criminal and personal status cases, which were under the jurisdiction of sharia courts before 1973. However, when considering the latter category of cases, the courts continue to apply the procedural rules provided for in the 1958 Law on Procedure in Sharia Courts.
In 1969, the People's Court was established. Although it was originally created to deal with cases of "political and administrative corruption" of former senior civil servants, its jurisdiction was subsequently expanded. The court was not bound by procedural rules, and its decisions were subject to review only by the Revolutionary Command Council, the country's highest authority at the time. In May 1988, a new People's Court was established with the same jurisdiction. The new court, however, is obliged to comply with the Code of Criminal Procedure, and its decisions can be appealed to the Court of Cassation.
In accordance with Law No. 74 of 1975, certain judicial powers are vested in the primary people's committees, which settle minor disputes between residents of the locality using conciliation procedures. Although the Libyan judicial system does not include administrative justice organs, in accordance with Law No. 88 of 1971, a special chamber for administrative disputes has been established in each court of appeal, the decisions of which can be appealed to the Supreme Court.
Literature
Luther G. Libya // International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Vol. 1. 1973. P.L33-40.
Mahmood T. Legal System in Modern Li-bya- Reflorescence of Islamic Laws // Journal of Indian Law Institute. Vol. 18. 1976. P. 431-454.
Jamahiriya is a special form of social order that prevailed in Libya during the reign of Gaddafi. The only source of which is his "Green Book", which spread throughout Europe, America, China, Japan, and the Arab world. It was released in the USSR on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Libyan revolution. In the 70-80s, national Islamic socialism, the third world theory, was popular in Arab countries. Three parts of the Green Book were published in Tripoli in 1976 - 1979. Gaddawi's concept, at the moment, has and has never had any practical analogues. When Gaddafi was writing one of the parts of the book in a tent in the desert, 170 American planes tried to attack it in order to burn its draft.
Democracy (Power of the people)
According to the Jamahiriya, the main political problem of human society is the problem of the instrument of power. Even family conflicts are often generated by this problem. The parliamentary victory of a candidate ends with the victory of the instrument of government that represents the minority, which occurs when votes are distributed among a group of candidates, with one of them receiving more votes than each other individually. If we sum up the votes cast for the remaining candidates, it turns out that they constitute an overwhelming majority. The elected representatives of the people sit in parliament and speak on behalf of the people, instead of themselves. That is, parliament is a barrier to democracy. Because if a deputy is elected from a district in which there may be hundreds, thousands, millions of people who are not connected with the deputy by any ties. The seats occupied by deputies represent the interests of their party or coalition, but not the people. In the parliamentary race, deputies are fighting for votes, splitting the people. The right to inherit parliamentary seats does not fit into any form of democracy. The parliamentary election system is demagogic because votes can be bought and manipulated. Therefore, parliamentary elections are almost always won by the rich. The need for parliaments arose when monarchs treated people like cattle, so having their own representatives in power was a cherished dream. The party is an instrument of dictatorship, since it is the power of a part over the whole. The party defends certain interests, and the people are a mass of people with many interests. In relation to the people, the party is only a minority that wants to subjugate the non-party minority. The more parties there are, the fiercer the struggle for power between them, which undermines public life. The party that wins the elections usurps power. The difference between a party and a clan lies in the presence of blood relationships among members of the latter. The Jamahiriya completely denies the class struggle. Putting the concept of “class” along with the concepts of “party” and “clan”. That is, if the working class has seized power, then over time it will acquire the features of the bourgeois class suppressed by it. “The class which alienates the property of another class and takes possession of it in order to maintain power in its own hands finds that this property has the same effect on itself as it previously had on society at large.” The referendum is recognized as a waste of time and a falsification of democracy, because in a referendum you can only say “yes” or “no”, and a person should be able to motivate his opinion. Referendums were invented in order to veil the unsuccessful decisions of the authorities. The only means of realizing people's democracy are people's congresses. Direct democracy has become a utopia due to the large number of people. The heterogeneity of regimes that call themselves democratic only indicates their undemocratic nature, for the reason stated above. People's congresses are organized, electing people's committees that replace the administration and take over the governance of the country. The people's congresses themselves control their work. Since members of congresses belong to different professions, they create people's professional congresses. Issues raised by the people's congresses and committees are formulated at the General People's Congress, where the leading bodies of the people's congresses and people's committees meet together. Laws are formed in the Jamahiriya based on customs and religion. Laws in modern societies are unnatural to human nature and are formed in the interests of the ruling elite. The law does not need to be developed, but must exist under the auspices of human essence and be a passing legacy. Religion is recognized as the most “humane and fair” source of law. According to Gaddafi, society does not need any government intervention in its own affairs. This must be carried out by the people themselves at congresses. A person should have the right to freedom of expression, even if he is insane. The society consists of many individuals and legal entities. Therefore, if an individual is insane, this does not mean that the rest of society is also insane. Therefore, the press cannot belong to a specific person. But since the opposite is true, the newspaper is not a spokesman for public opinion. Therefore, a democratic press should be published by a people's committee, and in particular on a professional basis. To solve the problem of the press, it is necessary to solve the problem of democracy as a whole. The Third World Theory states that a democratic system consists of people's congresses, people's congresses and people's committees.
Solution to the economic problem (Socialism)
The question of wages, from the point of view of the Jamahiriya, is incorrect, because workers exchange the fruits of their labor for handouts, and there should be a principle: “whoever produces, consumes.” Hired workers, no matter how great their earnings, are the same slaves. There are three elements in the mechanism of manual labor: the worker, the entrepreneur, and the means of production. A person's freedom is incomplete if his needs are controlled by others. The desire to satisfy needs can lead to the enslavement of man by man; exploitation is also generated by needs. Satisfaction of needs is a real problem, and if the person himself does not manage his needs, struggle arises. If a person has a dwelling larger than he needs to meet his needs, then he will rent it out, infringing on the freedom of the tenant. Thus, the owner of clothing has the right to remove it from a person on the street and leave him naked, the owner of the vehicle he uses can drop him off at an intersection, and the owner of the house where he lives can leave him homeless. For a person living in his own house is not free. The land is recognized as a common land on which people themselves satisfy their needs. The accumulation of a share of social wealth in an amount exceeding the needs of one person is already an encroachment on the needs of another person. For example, a worker produces ten apples for society; society gives him one apple for his participation in production, which completely satisfies his needs. The surplus should belong to all members of society. Disabled and congenitally disabled people should receive the same share of public wealth as healthy people. So, the new socialist society is nothing more than a logical result arising from the dialectic of unjust relations existing in the world, which naturally give rise to just such a solution to the problem. It is frivolous to try to manage the satisfaction of the primary needs of a person with the help of legal, administrative and other measures, since their satisfaction is the unshakable basis of society, determined by its natural laws. Profit and money can disappear when natural human needs are satisfied. Ultimately, labor in the name of increasing profits leads to the disappearance of profits. Domestic servants are harmful to socialism because they are busy serving another person, and not producing goods. In cases where worker participation is still necessary, domestic work should not be performed by servants, paid or unpaid, but by workers who enjoy the right to promotion and have the same social and material guarantees as other public service workers.
Social aspect of the Third World Theory
The social factor is the engine of human history. The basis of historical development is the social bond that unites people in communities, starting with the family and ending with the tribe and nation. As for the struggle for power, it occurs within the community at different levels, right down to the family. The religious factor unites representatives of different nations. A state is an artificial political, economic, and sometimes military device that is in no way connected with the concept of humanity and has nothing to do with it. Likewise, the cultivation of plants has no relation to the original natural environment. Family is a community of people where a person feels more comfortable than in a tribe or nation. And since within the tribe a person is freer, it becomes for him, in a way, a school of life. The nation provides a person with political protection. National fanaticism, the use of national force against weak nations, and the progress of one nation as a result of the seizure of the property of another bring evil and harm to all humanity. However, a strong personality is necessary for the tribe and family. Over time, the political map of the world has changed. States were falling apart. This happened with well-known world empires, for they were all a collection of nations, each of which, due to its nationalistic aspirations, began to seek independence. States can unite on the basis of a common religion, but this does not help if the national spirit turns out to be stronger than the religious one. Jamaria opposes attacks on family values and compares nurseries to chicken farms. If a woman is sick, then a man should take on part of her responsibilities. If there is a good reason, a woman may not fast. Any attempts to turn a woman into a man are a regression for society. There are two types of minorities - a minority that has merged with the nation and become its social part, and a minority that does not have its own nation. The latter is an independent social organism and is a historically established community. Encroachments on these rights by any majority are arbitrary. Social identity is a property inherent in a given minority; it can neither be granted nor denied. The political and economic problems of such a minority can only be solved in a society ruled by the masses, where power, wealth and weapons belong to the masses. The large number of the black race Studying science in classrooms, compulsory education, forcing one to choose a profession, in the opinion of the Jamahiriya, is dictatorship and the propagation of ignorance. A person must choose a profession by nature. The Jamahiriya proposes to abandon the study of foreign cultures and monopolization of knowledge. The Jamahiriya compares sports with prayer: solitary sports with prayer in a room, and sports in a stadium with prayer in a temple. Therefore, stadiums must be abolished, because it is not right to watch others pray. It's like going to a restaurant and watching how others eat. Any attempts to monopolize the sport must be stopped. It is useless to promote sports, as it dulls consciousness. When wealth and weapons belong to the masses, sport as one of the social activities also belongs to the masses. It is also wrong to turn sport into the property of individuals, since mass sport is easier for society to pay for. The thousands of cheering and laughing spectators who fill the stands of the stadiums are thousands of misled people who, unable to play sports in person, sit idly in the stands and applaud the champions who have taken the initiative from them. In the same way, people who go to the theater are considered idle by supporters of the Jamahiriya. For example, a person watching horses race does not want to learn to ride a horse himself. The Jamahiriya equates martial arts with relics of barbarism.
In 2011, Libya was attacked and destroyed by the imperialists. Its leader himself (born June 7, 1942) and several of his associates, according to some information, were killed; according to others, including official ones, they went missing, but their death has not been proven (according to one of the Russian intelligence officers, Muammar Gaddafi “ alive and waiting in the wings"). All this is not important now, but what is important is that Gaddafi as a political figure has been removed from the board.
Moreover, especially on the left, Libya is described as an exemplary state, destroyed from the outside; many websites have appeared praising the country, while the population supposedly had no reason for riots or discontent. Classic conspiracy theory, extreme idealism, as we will now see.
For the study, we use the materials of A. E. Egorin, professor of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who worked in Libya in 1974-1980. adviser to the USSR Embassy, the work of Gaddafi himself entitled “Green Book” (an interesting work - an autobiography, a collection of articles and a constitution in one) and information from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia of the Brezhnev era.
From the middle of the 16th century until 1911–1912. the lands of Libya were part of the Ottoman Empire, from 1911–1912 to 1942–1943 a colony of Italy. In World War II they were occupied by Great Britain and France.
On December 24, 1951, the independent Kingdom of Libya was proclaimed. But, despite formal independence, the country was still a Western colony.
Even in the first half of the 20th century, Libya sought liberation. The resistance to the Italian invaders in 1923–1931 was led by Omar Mukhtar. In many ways, Omar Mukhtar was a model for Gaddafi. And even earlier, in 1911, the Italian colonialist killed the grandfather of Muammar Gaddafi, who led the resistance. So Muammar Gaddafi is a hereditary revolutionary.
On September 1, 1969, the Free Unionist Socialist Army organization under the leadership of Muammar Gaddafi carried out a military coup, officially called the Al-Fateh Revolution.
The Libyan Arab Republic was proclaimed. Since 1977, Libya has been renamed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ("jamahiriya" - "state, governance, organization of the masses", "rule of the people", "people's democracy", from "jumhuriya" - republic), and since 1986 into the Great Socialist People's Republic Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. As a result of the coup d'etat overthrown, supporters and comrades either fled the country or went into partisan resistance in Libya itself.
So, we see that Gaddafi sought to build socialism.
Gaddafi was also an internationalist: he maintained contacts with various revolutionary and national liberation movements (African, Latin American, Irish Republican Army), and sought to create state unions. For example, from 1972 to 1977, Libya participated in the confederal state formation of the Federation of Arab Republics (Libya, Egypt, Syria, and Sudan and Tunisia were also proposed - all of these countries were affected by the phenomenon of Arab socialism). The Arab Islamic Republic (Libya, Tunisia, Algeria) was also proposed in 1972–1977.
The Great Man-Made River also provided free assistance in the decolonization of African countries.
At the same time, Gaddafi’s policy at the domestic level was an extremely bizarre mixture of anarchism, state capitalism, nationalism (pan-Arabism) and moderate Islamism.
The revolution of 1969 was in fact bourgeois - it allowed the formation of a national bourgeoisie. All enterprises were nationalized.
By 1980, private ownership of the means of production was eliminated, and public and cooperative stores were created in its place.
In 1973–1975, a 3-year development plan for the country was developed, then until the mid-eighties there were five-year plans. In the military sphere, Libya and the USSR cooperated under five-year plans. The planned economy remained even after the counter-revolution of 2011.
By the end of the 20th century, the remnants of feudal relations were completely eliminated.
Based on all of the above, the following conclusion suggests itself: in Libya under Gaddafi there was state-monopoly capitalism.
At the same time, ideologically, Libyan leaders initially retreated from Marxism. Without refusing to put into practice certain principles in accordance with Marxism, they also showed interest in the Russian anarchists Bakunin and Kropotkin, Leo Tolstoy, as well as Dostoevsky, Sartre, Rousseau. The study of Marxism was possible in principle, but the very activities of communist parties and opposition movements were generally outlawed. The only legal political party in 1971–1977 was the Arab Socialist Union. The Arab Socialist Union and the Revolutionary Command Council were also abolished in 1977 and replaced by the General People's (People's) Congress. It was this transformation that was defined as “jamahiriya”, “genuine democracy”.
The activities of all political parties were officially banned - in fact, the General Congress was the ruling party (it is because of this that one gets the feeling that Gaddafi used almost fascist methods to retain power).
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