There was a meeting of civilizations that changed the way of life of many peoples of the world, but not always for the better. For Africans, it turned into a terrible disaster - the slave trade. Europeans turned the continent into a real hunting ground for people.
From slave trade to conquest
Tens of millions of people - the strongest, healthiest and most resilient - were taken outside Africa. The shameful trade in black slaves has become an integral part of European history and the history of the two Americas.
In the 19th century, after the slave trade was ended, Europeans began to conquer the African continent. The most dramatic events occurred in the last third of the century. The European powers literally tore Africa apart, and completed their “job” by the outbreak of the First World War.
Exploring Africa
On the eve of the decisive battle for Africa, that is, by the seventies, only a tenth of the huge continent was in the possession of European powers. Algeria belonged to France. Cape Colony in Southern Africa - England. Two small states were created there by the descendants of Dutch settlers. The remaining European possessions were strongholds on the sea coast. The interior of Africa was a secret behind seven locks - unexplored and inaccessible.
Henry Stanley (left) went to Africa in 1869 in search of Livingston, who had not made himself known for three years. They met on the shores of Lake Tanganyika in 1871.
European expansion into the interior of the African continent in the 19th century. made possible thanks to extensive geographical research. From 1800 to 1870, more than 70 major geographical expeditions were sent to Africa. Travelers and Christian missionaries collected valuable information about the natural resources and population of Tropical Africa. Many of them made great contributions to science, but European industrialists took advantage of the fruits of their activities.
Outstanding travelers were the Frenchman Caillet, the German Barth, the Scotsman Livingston and the Englishman Stanley. Only brave and resilient people could overcome vast distances, barren deserts and impenetrable jungles, rapids and waterfalls of the great African rivers. Europeans had to contend with unfavorable climatic conditions and tropical diseases. The expeditions lasted for years, and not all participants returned home. The history of African exploration is a long history. In it, the most honorable place is occupied by the most noble and selfless of the travelers, Livingston, who died in 1873 from a fever.
Riches of Africa
European colonialists were attracted to Africa by its enormous natural wealth and valuable raw materials, such as rubber and palm oil. Manila has the opportunity to grow cocoa, cotton, sugar cane and other crops in favorable climatic conditions. Gold and diamonds were found on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea and then in South Africa. Finally, new flows of European goods could be sent to Africa.
Exploration of the African continent forced Europeans to recognize the existence of original African art. Stringed musical instrument. Ritual musical instruments
Leopold II and Africa
The decisive battle for Africa began with the Belgian king Leopold II. The motive for his actions was greed. Early in 1876, he read a report that the Congo Basin contained “an amazing and fabulously rich country.” A man who ruled a very small state literally became obsessed with the idea of getting himself a huge territory, equal in size to one-third of the United States. For this purpose, he invited Henry Stanley to serve. He was already a famous traveler and became famous for finding Livingston’s lost expedition in the wilds of Africa.
On behalf of the Belgian king, Stanley went to the Congo on a special mission. By cunning and deception, he concluded a series of treaties with African leaders for territorial possessions. By 1882, he managed to acquire more than 1 million square kilometers for the King of Belgium. At the same time, England occupied Egypt. The territorial division of Africa began.
The Belgian king, successful and enterprising, was worried. How will the European powers react to his actions?
Berlin Conference
France and Portugal did not hide their discontent. Still would! After all, they were bypassed at the very moment when they were planning to seize Congolese territories. The disputes that arose were resolved at the Berlin International Conference, convened in 1884 on the initiative of the German Chancellor Bismarck.
Representatives of 14 European states “legitimized” the territorial division of Africa at the conference. To acquire any territory, it was enough to “effectively occupy” it and promptly notify the other powers about it. After such a decision, the Belgian king could be completely calm. He became the “legal” owner of territories tens of times larger than the size of his own country.
"The Great African Hunt"
When acquiring African territories, Europeans in most cases resorted to deception and cunning. After all, treaties were signed with tribal leaders who could not read and often did not delve into the contents of the document. In return, the natives received rewards in the form of several bottles of gin, red scarves or colorful clothes.
If necessary, Europeans used weapons. After the invention of the Maxim machine gun in 1884, which fired 11 bullets per second, the military advantage was entirely on the side of the colonialists. The courage and bravery of blacks had virtually no meaning. As the English poet Belloc wrote:
Everything will be the way we want it;
In case of any troubles
We have a Maxim machine gun,
They don't have Maxim.
Conquering the continent was more like a hunt than a war. It is no coincidence that it went down in history as the “Great African Hunt.”
In 1893, in Zimbabwe, 50 Europeans armed with 6 machine guns killed 3 thousand blacks from the Ndebele tribe in two hours. In 1897, in northern Nigeria, a military detachment of 32 Europeans with 5 machine guns and 500 African mercenaries defeated the 30,000-strong army of the Emir of Sokoto. In the Battle of Omdurman in Sudan in 1898, the British destroyed 11 thousand Sudanese during a five-hour battle, losing only 20 soldiers.
The desire of European powers to get ahead of each other has more than once caused international conflicts. However, things did not come to military clashes. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The division of Africa ended. Vast territories of the continent found themselves in the possession of England, France, Portugal, Italy, Belgium and Germany. And although the military advantage was on the side of the Europeans, many African peoples offered them fierce resistance. The most famous example is Ethiopia.
Ethiopia against European colonization
Back in the 16th century. The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese tried to conquer Ethiopia. But all their attempts were unsuccessful. In the 19th century Developed European powers, especially England, began to show interest in it. She openly interfered in the internal affairs of this African country, and in 1867 a 15,000-strong British army invaded its borders. European soldiers were armed with new types of rifles. One but decisive battle took place - the battle between man and machine. The Ethiopian troops were defeated, and the emperor, not wanting to surrender, shot himself. The British lost only two people.
The defeated country lay at the feet of the conquerors, but England was unable to reap the benefits of its victory. The same thing happened as in Afghanistan. Both nature and people were against the conquerors. The British lacked food and drinking water. They were surrounded by a hostile population. And they were forced to leave the country.
At the end of the 19th century. A new threat looms over Ethiopia. This time from the Italian side. Her attempts to establish a protectorate over Ethiopia were rejected by the intelligent and far-sighted Emperor Menelik II. Then Italy started a war against Ethiopia. Menelik addressed the people with an appeal: “Enemies have come to us from across the sea, they have violated the inviolability of our borders and are seeking to destroy our faith, our fatherland... I am going to defend the country and repel the enemy. Let everyone who has strength follow me.” The Ethiopian people rallied around the emperor, and he managed to create an army of 100,000.
Emperor Menelik II personally directs the actions of his army. In the battle of Adua, the Italians, out of 17 thousand soldiers, lost 11 thousand killed and wounded. In the struggle for the integrity of his country, Menelik II tried to rely on Russia. The latter, in turn, was interested in a strong independent Ethiopia
In March 1896, the famous battle of Adua took place. For the first time, an African army managed to defeat the troops of a European power. Moreover, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Italy recognized the sovereignty of Ethiopia, the only independent African state at the end of the 19th century.
Boer War
Dramatic events took place in southern Africa. This was the only place on the continent where whites fought with whites: the British with the descendants of Dutch settlers - the Boers. The struggle for South Africa was long, hard-fought and unfair on both sides.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Cape Colony passed into English hands. The new owners abolished slavery and thereby dealt a severe blow to the agricultural and cattle-breeding economy of the Boers, based on slave labor. In search of new lands, the Boers began their great migration to the north and east, deep into the continent, mercilessly destroying the local population. In the middle of the 19th century. they formed two independent states - the Orange Free State and the Republic of South Africa (Transvaal). Soon, huge reserves of diamonds and gold were found in the Transvaal. This discovery decided the fate of the Boer republics. England did everything possible to get its hands on fabulous riches.
In 1899 the Anglo-Boer War broke out. The sympathies of many people in the world were on the side of the small, fearless people who challenged the largest power of the time. The war, as expected, ended in 1902 with the victory of England, which began to reign supreme in southern Africa.
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At the beginning of the 19th century. In the United States, the American Colonization Society arose, created with the goal of relocating freed black slaves to Africa. The chosen location for settlement was the territory on the Guinea coast of West Africa. In 1821, the “Society” purchased land from local leaders for perpetual use for six guns, a box of beads, two barrels of tobacco, four hats, three handkerchiefs, 12 mirrors and other goods with a total value of $50. First, black settlers founded the settlement of Monrovia on these lands (in honor of the American President D. Monroe). In 1847, the Republic of Liberia, which means “free,” was proclaimed. In reality, the free state was dependent on the United States.
Paramount Chief Lobengula and his people
Moving deeper into the continent, the Boers ousted the Matabele from the territory of the Transvaal into the Zambezi-Limpopo interfluve. But even here the exiles did not find peace. The struggle for the interfluve, which was claimed by the British, the Boers, the Portuguese, and the Germans, was fueled by rumors of rich gold deposits in the new Matabele lands. The British were the largest force in this struggle. Under the threat of force, they forced Lobengula to “sign” (put a cross) in 1888 on an unequal treaty. And in 1893 the British invaded the Matabele lands. An unequal struggle began, which ended three years later with the annexation of the interfluve to the English possessions in South Africa. Due to differences in cultures and ideas about life and the world around them, it was difficult for Africans to understand Europeans. And yet, the most far-sighted people, such as Chief Lobengula, were able to understand the deceptive maneuvers of the British and their methods of fighting for South Africa: “Have you ever seen how a chameleon hunts a fly? The chameleon stands behind the fly and remains motionless for a while, then begins to carefully and slowly move forward, silently placing one leg after the other. Finally, when he gets close enough, he throws out his tongue - and the fly disappears. England is a chameleon and I am a fly."
References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.
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Slide captions:
Africa: a continent in an era of change
In the 19th century, Africa experienced great upheaval: European countries, taking advantage of the industrial revolution, divided the continent into spheres of influence.
What did the colony give to European countries? Sales markets Opportunity to get rich
By the beginning of the 19th century, the African continent was inhabited by various nationalities: Arabs, Zulus, Kaffirs, Hottentots, Bushmen, Malagasy. All these peoples were at different levels of development.
The pygmies lived in small groups in the forests along the Congo River and were among the most backward peoples in the world. They were engaged in fishing and hunting in a strictly defined hunting territory.
Among many African peoples, the culture of agriculture has reached a high level of development, especially the cultivation of coffee, peanuts, and cocoa beans.
Cults and religions of Africa Local beliefs were represented by various cults. All beliefs were associated with witchcraft and magic. There was a cult of priest-kings, whose personality was surrounded by many taboos (prohibitions), and their accession and death were accompanied by special rituals.
In the state of Loango (Bas-Congo), no one, on pain of death, could watch the king eat. In the state of Bakuba (the center of the Congo), the king could not die a natural death. According to tradition, he was strangled without waiting for a natural end. African temples were simple structures made of wood and palm leaves. At the same time, they owned lands and slaves, which were controlled by the priests.
Began at the end of the 15th century. colonial conquests had a heavy impact on the lives of African peoples. Traditional trade ties were disrupted, colonial wars led to the destruction of local industries, and sometimes to the death of entire states. Division of Africa Division of Africa by European states
The slave trade, which continued until the mid-19th century, was called a bloody nightmare. It cost the peoples of Africa the loss of at least 100 million people. Portugal's first colonies, Angola and Mozambique, became the largest bases for the slave trade.
Since the 70s XIX century The process of conquest of the deep territories of Africa intensified. The struggle for its complete division by the European powers led to the emergence of “French,” “British,” “German” Africa, etc.
South Africa Not far from the Cape of Good Hope, Europeans founded a settlement - Cape Town. Calvinists persecuted in Europe began to flock there. The new colony expanded by seizing land from the indigenous population (Hottentots and Bushmen). Settlers from the Netherlands, France and Germany, based on a common religion, language (Afrikaan) and history, formed a new nation - the Boers.
Only Liberia and Ethiopia managed to maintain their independence. However, the first became the sphere of influence of the United States, and the second - of England, France and Italy. Liberia Ethiopia By 1900, the territorial division was completed; more than 90% of the territory of the African continent was in the hands of the colonialists.
Liberia The creation of Liberia is associated with the fight against slavery in the United States. The Americans began to resettle their black slaves to Africa. In the 20s 19th century The Americans purchased coastal territory on the Guinea coast from local leaders for $50. The settlers, using force, quickly expanded the territory. In 1847 The Republic of Liberia was proclaimed here.
The number of Aboriginal people eligible to vote gradually increased. The number of educated people grew. The country's leadership skillfully used the contradictions between England and France. As a result, Liberia escaped direct enslavement. But she could not escape economic enslavement. The country specialized in iron mining and rubber production. Rubber collection Ore mining
Ethiopia is a country that remained independent. Feudal relations dominated in Ethiopia in the 19th century. Domestic slavery and remnants of the tribal system still persisted here. Ethiopia
In the 50s, Kassa, the son of a small feudal lord, appeared in Ethiopia. Gathering an army, he defeated the rulers of individual principalities. In 1855, he proclaimed himself emperor under the name of Theodore (Theodoros II). Feodor Theodoros II
Having come to power, Theodoros II united the lands and put an end to civil strife. Created a large and disciplined army. Reduced taxes on the rural population and collected government revenues in his own hands. The slave trade was prohibited; the power of the church has weakened
The construction of the Suez Canal made Ethiopia an important strategic location. In the 1860s The British invade the country. Theodoros' army was defeated, and he himself shot himself. However, the British failed to gain a foothold in Ethiopia. In 1895 Italy made an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Ethiopia.
Consequences of European colonization §30, issue (v.5 letters)
According to most scientists, Africa is the cradle of humanity. The remains of the oldest hominids, found in 1974 in Harare (), are determined to be up to 3 million years old. Hominid remains at Koobi Fora () date back to approximately the same time. It is believed that the remains in the Olduvai Gorge (1.6 - 1.2 million years old) belong to the species of hominid that, in the process of evolution, led to the emergence of Homo sapiens.
The formation of ancient people took place mainly in the grassy zone. Then they spread throughout almost the entire continent. The first discovered remains of African Neanderthals (the so-called Rhodesian man) date back to 60 thousand years ago (sites in Libya, Ethiopia).
The earliest remains of modern humans (Kenya, Ethiopia) date back to 35 thousand years ago. Modern humans finally supplanted Neanderthals about 20 thousand years ago.
About 10 thousand years ago, a highly developed society of gatherers developed in the Nile Valley, where the regular use of grains of wild cereals began. It is believed that it was there by the 7th millennium BC. Africa's oldest civilization emerged. The formation of pastoralism in general in Africa ended by the middle of the 4th millennium BC. But most modern crops and domestic animals apparently came to Africa from Western Asia.
Ancient history of Africa
In the second half of the 4th millennium BC. Social differentiation in North and North-East Africa intensified, and on the basis of territorial entities - nomes - two political associations arose - Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The struggle between them ended by 3000 BC. the emergence of a single one (the so-called Ancient Egypt). During the reign of the 1st and 2nd dynasties (30-28 centuries BC), a unified irrigation system for the entire country was formed, and the foundations of statehood were laid. During the era of the Old Kingdom (3-4 dynasties, 28-23 centuries BC), a centralized despotism was formed headed by the pharaoh - the unlimited master of the entire country. The economic basis of the power of the pharaohs became diversified (royal and temple).
Simultaneously with the rise of economic life, the local nobility grew stronger, which again led to the disintegration of Egypt into many nomes and the destruction of irrigation systems. In the continuation of the 23rd-21st centuries before A.D. (7-11 dynasties) there was a struggle for a new unification of Egypt. State power especially strengthened during the 12th dynasty during the Middle Kingdom (21st-18th centuries BC). But again, the discontent of the nobility led to the disintegration of the state into many independent regions (14-17 dynasties, 18-16 centuries BC).
The nomadic Hyksos tribes took advantage of the weakening of Egypt. Around 1700 BC they took possession of Lower Egypt, and by the middle of the 17th century BC. already ruled the entire country. At the same time, the liberation struggle began, which by 1580 before A.D. graduated from Ahmose 1 who founded the 18th dynasty. This began the period of the New Kingdom (reign of 18-20 dynasties). The New Kingdom (16-11 centuries BC) is the time of the highest economic growth and cultural upsurge of the country. The centralization of power increased - local governance passed from independent hereditary nomarchs into the hands of officials.
Subsequently, Egypt experienced invasions by the Libyans. In 945 BC The Libyan military commander Shoshenq (22nd dynasty) proclaimed himself pharaoh. In 525 BC Egypt was conquered by the Persians in 332 by Alexander the Great. In 323 BC after the death of Alexander, Egypt went to his military commander Ptolemy Lagus, who in 305 BC. declared himself king and Egypt became the Ptolemaic state. But endless wars undermined the country, and by the 2nd century BC. Egypt was conquered by Rome. In 395 AD, Egypt became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, and from 476 AD it became part of the Byzantine Empire.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the crusaders also made a number of attempts to conquer, which further aggravated the economic decline. In the 12th-15th centuries, rice and cotton crops, sericulture and winemaking gradually disappeared, and the production of flax and other industrial crops fell. The population of the centers of agriculture, including the valley, reoriented itself to the production of cereals, as well as dates, olives and horticultural crops. Huge areas were occupied by extensive cattle breeding. The process of so-called Bedouinization of the population proceeded extremely quickly. At the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries, most of North Africa, and by the 14th century Upper Egypt, became dry semi-desert. Almost all cities and thousands of villages disappeared. During the 11th-15th centuries, the population of North Africa decreased, according to Tunisian historians, by approximately 60-65%.
Feudal tyranny and tax oppression, the deteriorating environmental situation led to the fact that Islamic rulers could not simultaneously contain the discontent of the people and resist the external threat. Therefore, at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, many cities and territories of North Africa were captured by the Spaniards, Portuguese and the Order of St. John.
Under these conditions, the Ottoman Empire, acting as defenders of Islam, with the support of the local population, overthrew the power of local sultans (Mamluks in Egypt) and raised anti-Spanish uprisings. As a result, by the end of the 16th century, almost all territories of North Africa became provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The expulsion of the conquerors, the cessation of feudal wars and the restriction of nomadism by the Ottoman Turks led to the revival of cities, the development of crafts and agriculture, and the emergence of new crops (corn, tobacco, citrus fruits).
Much less is known about the development of sub-Saharan Africa during the Middle Ages. Trade and intermediary contacts with Northern and Western Asia played a fairly large role, which required great attention to the military-organizational aspects of the functioning of society to the detriment of the development of production, and this naturally led to the further lag of Tropical Africa. But on the other hand, according to most scientists, Tropical Africa did not know the slave system, that is, it moved from a communal system to a class society in the early feudal form. The main centers of development of Tropical Africa in the Middle Ages were: Central and Western, the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, the basin, and the Great Lakes region.
New history of Africa
As already noted, by the 17th century, the countries of North Africa (except Morocco) and Egypt were part of the Ottoman Empire. These were feudal societies with long traditions of urban life and highly developed handicraft production. The uniqueness of the social and economic structure of North Africa was the coexistence of agriculture and extensive cattle breeding, which was practiced by nomadic tribes that preserved the traditions of tribal relations.
The weakening of the power of the Turkish Sultan at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries was accompanied by economic decline. The population (in Egypt) was halved between 1600 and 1800. North Africa again broke up into a number of feudal states. These states recognized vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire, but had independence in internal and external affairs. Under the banner of defending Islam, they carried out military operations against European fleets.
But by the beginning of the 19th century, European countries had achieved superiority at sea, and since 1815, squadrons from Great Britain and France began to take military action off the coast of North Africa. Since 1830, France began colonizing Algeria, and parts of North Africa were captured.
Thanks to the Europeans, North Africa began to be drawn into the system. The export of cotton and grain increased, banks opened, railroads and telegraph lines were built. In 1869 the Suez Canal was opened.
But this penetration of foreigners caused discontent among Islamists. And since 1860, propaganda of the ideas of jihad (holy war) began in all Muslim countries, which led to multiple uprisings.
Tropical Africa until the end of the 19th century served as a source of slaves for the slave markets of America. Moreover, local coastal states most often played the role of intermediaries in the slave trade. Feudal relations in the 17th and 18th centuries developed precisely in these states (the Benin region); a large family community was widespread in a separate territory, although formally there were many principalities (as an almost modern example - Bafut).
The French expanded their possessions in the mid-19th century, and the Portuguese held the coastal regions of modern Angola and Mozambique.
This had a significant impact on the local economy: the range of food products was reduced (Europeans imported corn and cassava from America and widely distributed them), and many crafts fell into decline under the influence of European competition.
Since the end of the 19th century, the Belgians (since 1879), the Portuguese, and others have joined the struggle for African territory (since 1884), (since 1869).
By 1900, 90% of Africa was in the hands of colonial invaders. The colonies were turned into agricultural and raw materials appendages of the metropolises. The foundations were laid for the specialization of production in export crops (cotton in Sudan, peanuts in Senegal, cocoa and oil palms in Nigeria, etc.).
The colonization of South Africa began in 1652, when about 90 people (Dutch and German) landed at the Cape of Good Hope in order to create a transshipment base for the East India Company. This was the beginning of the creation of the Cape Colony. The result of the creation of this colony was the extermination of the local population and the emergence of a colored population (since during the first decades of the colony's existence, mixed marriages were allowed).
In 1806, Great Britain took over the Cape Colony, which led to an influx of settlers from Britain, the abolition of slavery in 1834 and the introduction of the English language. The Boers (Dutch colonists) took this negatively and moved north, destroying African tribes (Xhosa, Zulu, Suto, etc.).
A very important fact. By establishing arbitrary political boundaries, chaining each colony to its own market, tying it to a specific currency zone, the Metropolis dismembered entire cultural and historical communities, disrupted traditional trade ties, and suspended the normal course of ethnic processes. As a result, not a single colony had a more or less ethnically homogeneous population. Within the same colony, there were many ethnic groups living side by side, belonging to different language families, and sometimes to different races, which naturally complicated the development of the national liberation movement (although in the 20-30s of the 20th century, military uprisings took place in Angola, Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Congo, ).
During World War II, the Germans tried to include African colonies into the “living space” of the Third Reich. The war was fought on the territory of Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, and Equatorial Africa. But in general, the war gave impetus to the development of the mining and manufacturing industries; Africa supplied food and strategic raw materials to the warring powers.
During the war, national political parties and organizations began to be created in most colonies. In the first post-war years (with the help of the USSR), communist parties began to emerge, often leading armed uprisings, and options for the development of “African socialism” arose.
Sudan was liberated in 1956.
1957 – Gold Coast (Ghana),
After gaining independence, they followed different paths of development: a number of countries, mostly poor in natural resources, followed the socialist path (Benin, Madagascar, Angola, Congo, Ethiopia), a number of countries, mostly rich, followed the capitalist path (Morocco, Gabon, Zaire, Nigeria, Senegal, Central African Republic, etc.). A number of countries under socialist slogans carried out both reforms (, etc.).
But in principle there was not much difference between these countries. In both cases, nationalization of foreign property and land reforms were carried out. The only question was who paid for it - the USSR or the USA.
As a result of World War I, all of South Africa came under British rule.
In 1924, a law on “civilized labor” was passed, according to which Africans were excluded from jobs requiring qualifications. In 1930, the Land Allocation Act was passed, under which Africans were deprived of land rights and were to be placed in 94 reserves.
General history. History of modern times. 8th grade Burin Sergey Nikolaevich
§ 23. Africa at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 20th century
The oldest country on the African continent, Egypt has always strived for independence. Even after becoming part of the powerful Ottoman Empire (since 1517), Egypt largely retained its independence. From the beginning of the 18th century. power in the country actually belonged to local beys - Mamluk rulers. After the defeat of the Mamluk army by Bonaparte's army (1798), the beys fled from Egypt. True, after the departure of the French garrisons (1801), they returned, but the rule of the Mamluks was already coming to an end.
Egyptian
In 1805, Egyptian sheikhs (tribal elders) elected Muhammad Ali as pasha (local ruler). This experienced military leader destroyed the power of the Mamluks and took away all the lands from them - and at the same time from other large feudal lords. The pasha rented out the confiscated lands, and sometimes even transferred them to peasant communities. And although the taxes on these lands were very high, the authority of Muhammad Ali among the Egyptians was constantly growing.
Muhammad Ali
Under Muhammad Ali, new factories and irrigation canals appeared in Egypt, factories and factories began to emerge, and the first secular schools opened. With the help of specialists from France, Pasha reorganized the army and created a powerful fleet. For some time, the Ottomans pretended that they “did not notice” the strengthening of Egypt’s independence. But in 1829 the Sultan demanded tribute from Muhammad Ali, which the Egyptians had long ago stopped paying. Pasha boldly replied that this tribute had already been paid with the blood of Egyptian soldiers shed in the wars then waged by the Ottomans (in Arabia and Greece).
The Turkish-Egyptian War (1831–1833) began, in which the Egyptians won. Muhammad Ali took possession of Syria and the island of Crete. Now the lands under his control (they also included Arabia and Sudan) became larger than those that the Ottomans actually controlled. Turkey tried to get even for the defeat by starting a new war (1839–1840), but was again defeated by the Egyptians. At the same time, even the Turkish fleet went over to Muhammad Ali’s side. But the Ottomans were supported by European powers. They demanded that the Pasha leave only Egypt and Palestine under his rule. Muhammad Ali was forced to submit.
School in Cairo
After the death of Muhammad Ali (1849), Egypt's dependence on the West began to increase. European companies built railways, ports, irrigation canals, factories, etc. in the country. In the mid-1850s. Construction began on the Suez Canal, which almost halved the sea route from Europe to India and China. Through the efforts of tens of thousands of fellahs (Egyptian peasants), this important canal was built in 15 years. For the West, it became a source of huge profits, but for a long time it did not provide almost any benefits to the Egyptians.
Remember when and how the former sea route from Europe to India and China arose.
The country was not even able to pay the Europeans interest on numerous loans and borrowings. By the mid-1870s. it became clear that Egypt was unable to pay its external debts. Taking advantage of this, England and France actually took control of the country's income. The Egyptian authorities increased the tax burden, which could not but cause discontent among the population.
In the spring of 1879, unrest broke out in Egypt. Patriotic officers created the bourgeois-nationalist Fatherland Party (Hizb-ul-Watan). It was led by Colonel Ahmed Orabi, a former fellah peasant. The Watanists quickly gained popularity among the fellahs, soldiers, and intelligentsia. In January 1881, with the support of the Cairo garrison, they carried out a coup d'etat. Many Watanists entered the government, and Orabi became Minister of War. But in the summer of 1882, the British landed troops in Egypt. Orabi's troops were defeated. After this, Egypt actually turned into an English colony. Later, in December 1914, it was declared a protectorate of England. This happened after Turkey, the formal “mistress” of Egypt, entered the First World War on the side of the German bloc. Thus ended the era of Ottoman rule in Egypt.
Suez Canal
But even earlier, the struggle for the complete liberation of the country from foreign influence had resumed. The radical wing of the movement was headed by the Vatanist party, recreated in 1907. At the head of the moderate wing was the Reform Party, which relied on the wealthy bourgeoisie and landowners. The influence of the reformists gradually grew. And the Vatanist party was persecuted and banned by the authorities in 1910.
How did Egypt manage not only to match Turkey's strength, but also to defeat it in two wars?
Another large country in North Africa, Algeria, also from the first half of the 16th century. was part of the Ottoman Empire. However, already at the beginning of the 18th century. The dei (local rulers) began to enjoy approximately the same independence as the Mamluk rulers in Egypt. And at the end of the 18th century. The dey began to move closer to France, seeing it as a partner in the confrontation with the Ottomans. During the campaigns of Bonaparte's army in Italy and then in Egypt, the Algerians supplied the French with food and other important goods.
Napoleon was going to conquer “friendly” Algeria, but never managed to do it. The new French authorities did not abandon their claims to this country. They rejected attempts by the Algerians to seek repayment of debts for supplies received by France during the Napoleonic wars. And when the demands for repayment of debts became especially decisive, France began a naval blockade of the coast of Algeria (1827). Then, in June 1830, a 37,000-strong French army landed in Algeria. Within three weeks, the French conquered Algeria and declared it their colony. Dey fled the country.
But almost simultaneously the July Revolution began in France. Unrest broke out among French soldiers in Algeria. At the same time, the Algerians, led by the local tribal leader Abd al-Qadir, also rebelled. The rebels managed to recapture a significant part of Algeria from the French. In 1834, France concluded a peace treaty with the Algerians, recognizing the independence of the country.
The defeat of Abd al-Qadir's army by the French. 1843
A year later, the French resumed the war, but victory again remained with the Algerians. More and more reinforcements arrived from France to Algeria. By the mid-1840s. the number of French soldiers in Algeria reached 90 thousand people - twice as many as Abd al-Qadir. The French also surpassed the Algerians in the quality of weapons. By the end of the 1840s. France managed to defeat the main forces of the Algerians.
Since Algeria was relatively close to France, its colonization was carried out very actively. French colonists arrived in the country and were given the best lands. The area of communal lands was gradually reduced, and this caused discontent among the Algerians. Every now and then there were uprisings of local Arab tribes. The unrest was especially strong in 1870–1871, after the Algerians learned about the defeat of France in the war with Prussia.
To calm the local population, the French carried out land reform (1873). Communal and tribal lands were transferred to peasants as private property. But in practice, the reform led to the fact that these lands were often bought up or simply seized by French colonists. By the end of the 1910s. more than half of all sown areas were already in their hands.
Algerian woman
The ruined Algerian peasants became nomads or went to the cities, where, with the arrival of the French, industry and trade began to develop. Manifestations of discontent among the local population were quickly suppressed, since France constantly maintained a strong army in Algeria. Therefore, the protest of Algerians against the colonialists became, as it were, smoldering and flared up with renewed vigor only in the middle of the 20th century.
Why were the Algerians much faster than the Egyptians in their fight against the colonialists?
Mahdist uprising in Sudan
The Ottomans, who captured almost the entire north of Africa in modern times, stopped at the borders of Sudan. But in 1819–1822. Sudan was conquered by the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali. Subsequently, Sudan, like Egypt itself, became highly dependent on England. The country's population consisted mainly of settled peasants and nomads; their standard of living was very low.
Due to the prevalence of large desert areas in Sudan, the country's population was divided. A young Muslim preacher, the son of a peasant carpenter, Muhammad Ahmed, tried to rally him. He called on the Sudanese to oppose the “infidels” - the British and those serving them, or the Turks and Egyptians who had departed from the true faith. In 1881, Muhammad Ahmed proclaimed himself Mahdi - the messenger of Allah, whom he, according to ancient legend, instructed to save Muslims from all suffering and adversity. The Mahdi's popularity among the Sudanese poor grew rapidly. Tens of thousands of pilgrims flocked to the island on the White Nile, where the Mahdi gave his sermons.
British troops in Sudan
Sudanese authorities demanded that Mahdi appear in the capital Khartoum for proceedings. In response, the Mahdi declared a holy war (jihad) against the British and Egyptians, calling on the people to revolt. It began in August 1881, when the Mahdists defeated a detachment of Egyptian troops sent to capture their leader.
From the unarmed rebels, Mahdi quickly created a well-organized army. Its numbers grew rapidly due to the influx of thousands of peasants and nomads. The Mahdists won one victory after another. After Egypt in the early 1880s. found himself, in fact, at the mercy of the British, his army was led by British generals and officers. But even with their help it was not possible to defeat the rebels. The 40,000-strong Mahdi army, armed with rifles and guns captured in battles with the Egyptians, besieged the capital of Sudan. In January 1885, Khartoum was captured after almost a year-long siege. The Mahdi declared Sudan an independent Muslim state.
Chair carved from a single piece of wood
But in June, 37-year-old Mahdi suddenly died. He managed to appoint his associate Abdullah as head of the country. The Mahdist camp began to quickly disintegrate. Many of them were dissatisfied with the rapid enrichment of the Mahdist elite and its departure from the ideas of the Mahdi. True, Abdullah strengthened the army, bringing its number to 100 thousand people. But he lost the broad popular support that his predecessor had. This predetermined the collapse of the Mahdist state by the end of the 19th century.
Throwing a 25,000-strong army into Sudan, the British defeated Abdullah's troops. In the decisive battle of Omdurman on September 2–3, 1898, more than 20 thousand Mahdists died. The British used Maxim machine guns for the first time in this battle, mercilessly mowing down the enemy’s ranks. In 1899, Sudan was declared a joint possession of England and Egypt.
What do you think were the reasons for the defeat of the Mahdists? Why did their initially powerful and united movement disintegrate?
Other African countries
In the vast expanses of the African continent there were many other countries whose history was distinguished by its originality, the desire of their people to create their own civilization. Thus, in Ethiopia, which managed to maintain its independence by the end of the 18th century. a kind of Japanese shogunate emerged. Large feudal lords (races) nominated from among themselves a leader who actually ruled the country. And formally, Ethiopia was headed by the supreme ruler - the Negus. As a result, powerful races began to rule their lands as independent fiefdoms.
Slavery of Africans
In 1856, Kassai, a race from one of the small provinces, managed to subjugate the stronger neighboring races and declared himself Negus Tewodros II.
He carried out a number of reforms that limited the power of large feudal lords and the clergy, reduced taxes, and banned the slave trade. But at the end of the 1860s. English troops invaded the country and defeated the Negus army. Tewodros II himself also died. After his death, strife between races began again. Ethiopia has returned to the days of fragmentation.
Wooden sculpture. Sudan
In 1787, a company of English philanthropists, having bought a small region of Sierra Leone on the west coast of Africa, she began an unusual experiment there. At its own expense, the company sent former slaves to Sierra Leone, creating a kind of black state for them there. The company even provided wives for blacks, hiring... fallen women: for them, conflicts with the English police were worse than traveling to unknown lands. But not all blacks were able to tolerate the tropical climate. Most of them died from disease, and the same fate befell their “wives.” At the beginning of the 19th century. the experiment was stopped. Sierra Leone became a traditional colony.
The fate of neighboring Liberia was more successful. There, in 1821, American opponents of slavery founded the settlement of Monrovia (named after US President J. Monroe). Negro slaves who were freed by their owners, who fled from them, or who were ransomed by opponents of slavery were transported there from the United States. In 1847, black settlers proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Liberia (“free”).
A peculiar society has developed in the extreme south of Africa. There the Dutch East India Company founded the Cape Colony. Not only the Dutch, but also many French, Saxons and other Europeans settled permanently in the fertile, warm regions. Their blood mixed over the years, and the descendants of the colonists began to be called Boers (later - Afrikaners). Boer settlements expanded. At the end of the 18th century. The Boers tried to create their own authorities. But soon the colony was occupied by British troops. By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Holland “ceded” the Cape Colony to England. But the Boers did not stop fighting for independence.
Africa at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries.
Using the map, determine which European countries had the strongest positions in Africa as a result of its division. Try to imagine yourself in turn in the shoes of the leaders of England, France and Germany and “on their behalf” speak out about “your” future plans in Africa.
This struggle was crowned with success. In 1852–1854 England was forced to recognize the independence of the Transvaal and Orange republics, created by the Boers to the northeast of the Cape Colony. In 1867, the world's largest diamond deposit was discovered on the lands of these republics. The diamond rush began, and a stream of immigrants from Europe and the USA poured into both Boer republics. England could not come to terms with the careless loss of such wealth: after all, the profits from diamond mining were colossal! At the end of the 19th century. The Anglo-Boer War broke out, leading to the collapse of the Boer statehood. (You will learn more about this war later.)
Despite the fairly active colonization of Africa by Europeans, by the turn of the 1870-1880s. they captured only a little more than 10% of the continent. A struggle began for the final division of Africa, which generally ended by the beginning of the 20th century. During this struggle, conflicts related to the ongoing division of Europe into opposing camps flared up more than once between the powers participating in it.
Let's sum it up
During the 19th century. The colonization of Africa was gaining momentum. Attempts by a number of states to defend their independence (Egypt, Algeria, Sudan) ended in failure. By the beginning of the 20th century. only one large African country, Ethiopia, managed to maintain formal independence. The continent was almost completely at the mercy of strong European powers.
Philanthropist (translated as “philanthropist”) – a person engaged in charitable activities. 1831–1833, 1839–1840 Turkish-Egyptian wars.1881–1898 Mahdist movement in Sudan.
1. What events in Europe could have influenced the rise of the national (Watanist) movement in Egypt in the late 1870s? How?
2. Why did Algeria become an object of interest and then colonization specifically for France? Is this just due to their relative proximity or something else?
3. Which principle, in your opinion, prevailed in the Mahdist movement - religious or national?
4. How are the experiments in creating black states in Sierra Leone and Liberia similar and different? Why did the first one fail and the second succeed?
5. What prevented the Boers (Afrikaners) from creating a strong state in southern Africa, as, for example, the North American colonists succeeded? Is it possible to compare the initial stage of European development of these two territories?
1. One European traveler who visited Egypt at the beginning of the 19th century wrote about the extreme poverty of the common population: “The poorest fellahs have nothing but a mat, which serves as a bed, a chair, and a table for them... There is nothing sadder than the homes of the poor fellahs . These are huts and huts, barely rising a few feet from the ground, their shaky walls are made of mud or earthen bricks... The poor live here along with livestock.” Do you think anything was done to remedy this plight of the Egyptian fellahin (for example, under Pasha Muhammad Ali)?
2. In April 1832, a French detachment brutally dealt with one of the Algerian tribes - El-Ouffia. The detachment, as an eyewitness to this massacre wrote, “suddenly attacked the unfortunates and massacred them all before any of them could defend themselves. They killed everyone, without distinction of gender or age.” The captured booty was sold in bazaars. “There were terrible things there: women’s bracelets with severed hands, earrings with severed earlobes hanging from them...” In your opinion, were such actions typical of the behavior of colonial troops or was such cruelty an exception?
3. The leader of one of the South African tribes, whose territory was occupied by the Boers (Afrikaners), said in April 1853 that the Boers treated the people of his tribe extremely cruelly: they burned houses, captured 1 thousand children and 200 women, 90 warriors the tribe was killed. The remnants of the tribe retreated to the Kalahari Desert. The leader appealed to the British “to restore peace to my country. If the English don't help me, I'm a dead man. I don't know who else I should contact. The Boers will not let us live anymore...” Why did the Boers, who themselves experienced oppression by the British, treat the Africans so cruelly? What conclusions can be drawn from the above passage as a whole?
From the book Imperial Russia authorPart I Russia at the end of the 17th – beginning of the 18th centuries
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author Burin Sergey NikolaevichChapter 3 Countries of America at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 20th centuries “...The day when victory remained on the side of the party that had Lincoln as its candidate, this great day is the beginning of a new era in the history of the United States of America, the day from which a turn in political development began
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From the book Southeast Asia and Western expansion in the 17th – early 18th centuries author Berzin Eduard OskarovichSiam at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century The news of the coup in Siam did not cool Tashar, although he had to disband 100 of his “volunteers”. As soon as he learned of Petrachi's accession to the throne, he began to develop plans for new intrigues, built on the respect that Petrachi's son Liang Sorasak had for him.
When America and the Soviet Union successively tested nuclear bombs in the 1940s, both superpowers decided that the atom was the future. Various large-scale projects using the power of the half-lives of uranium isotopes and other elements with similar properties have been developed by almost dozens.
One of these ideas was to create “atomic bullets” whose power would be as destructive as that of a nuclear bomb. But there is negligibly little information about these developments, and this whole story is overgrown with so many fables that today it is a semi-myth, the veracity of which few believe.
Atomic bullets appear in a number of science fiction stories. But at some point, Soviet military engineers seriously thought about the possibility of creating ammunition that would contain a radioactive element. To be fair, it should be pointed out that in some way these dreams were realized and are actively used today. We are talking about armor-piercing sub-caliber shells, which actually contain uranium. It’s just that in these munitions it is depleted and is not used at all as a “small nuclear bomb”.
As for the “atomic bullets” project itself, according to a number of sources that began to appear in the media already in the 1990s, Soviet scientists managed to create 14.3 mm and 12.7 mm ammunition for heavy machine guns. In addition, there is information about a 7.62 mm bullet. The weapons used in this case vary: some sources indicate that bullets of this caliber were made for a Kalashnikov assault rifle, while others indicate that they were made for his heavy machine gun.
According to the developers’ plans, such unusual ammunition was supposed to have enormous power: one bullet would “bake” an armored tank, and several would wipe out an entire building. According to published documents, not only prototypes were manufactured, but also successful tests were carried out. However, what stood in the way of these statements was, first of all, physics.
At first it was the concept of critical mass, which did not allow the use of uranium 235 or plutonium 239, traditional in the manufacture of nuclear bombs, for atomic bullets.
Then Soviet scientists decided to use the newly discovered transuranium element californium in these munitions. Its critical mass is only 1.8 grams. It would seem that it is enough to “compress” the required amount of californium into a bullet, and you will get a miniature nuclear explosion.
But here a new problem arises - excessive heat generation during the decay of the element. And a bullet with californium could emit about 5 watts of heat. This would make it dangerous both for the weapon and for the shooter - the ammunition could get stuck in the chamber or barrel, or could spontaneously explode during a shot. They tried to find a solution to this problem by creating special refrigerators for bullets, but their design and operating features were quickly considered impractical.
The main problem with using californium in atomic bullets was its depletion as a resource: the element was quickly running out, especially after the introduction of a moratorium on nuclear weapons testing. In addition, by the end of the 1970s, it became obvious that both enemy armored vehicles and structures could be successfully destroyed using more traditional methods. Therefore, according to sources, the project was finally abandoned in the early 1980s.
Despite a number of publications about the “atomic bullet” project, there are many skeptics who resolutely reject the information that such ammunition ever existed. Literally everything is subject to criticism: from the choice of californium for making bullets to their caliber and the use of Kalashnikov weapons.
Today, the history of these developments has turned into something between a scientific myth and a sensation, about which there is too little information to draw clear conclusions. But one thing can be said with confidence: no matter how much truth there is in published sources, such an ambitious idea in itself undoubtedly existed among not only Soviet but also American scientists.
