Interpersonal relationships

Subjectively experienced relationships between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process joint activities and communication. M. o. is a system of attitudes, orientations, expectations, stereotypes, and other dispositions through which people perceive and evaluate each other. These dispositions are mediated by the content, goals, values ​​and organization of joint activities and act as the basis for the formation socio-psychological climate in a collective .

Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: PHOENIX. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .

See what "interpersonal relations" are in other dictionaries:

Interpersonal relationships- relations between people that develop in the process of communication on the basis of personal preferences, interests, inclinations in a particular culture (and subculture). This is a socio-psychological phenomenon that experiences and "absorbs" in ... ... Fundamentals of spiritual culture (encyclopedic dictionary of a teacher)

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS- INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS. Relationships that arise in a group of people in the process of communication and learning. Most clearly M. o. manifested in the degree of psychological compatibility. Ability to organize the necessary M. about. in the team is one of the most important ... ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

Interpersonal relationships- Interpersonal Relationships ♦ Intersubjectivité A set of relationships between subjects: exchange, mutual feelings, joys and quarrels, conflicts, balance of power and mutual attraction… Otherwise there could be no subjects. Each of us… … Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville

Interpersonal relationships- Is it desirable to improve this article?: Find and arrange in the form of footnotes links to authoritative sources confirming what has been written. Correct the article according to the stylistic rules of Wikipedia ... Wikipedia

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS- a special type of social relations; implementation of impersonal relations in activities, acts of communication and interaction of individuals; fragments of social relations perceived by the individual (as the bearer of the sum social roles and unique... Glossary of Political Psychology

M. o. are formed in the course of long O. and interaction of people. Relationships are an integral system of individual selective conscious connections of a person with different aspects of objective reality, including 3 related components: ... ... Psychology of communication. encyclopedic Dictionary

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS- subjectively experienced relationships between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication. M.O. it is a system of attitudes, orientations, ... ... Sociology: Encyclopedia

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS- - subjectively experienced relationships between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication. The range of manifestation of M. o. quite wide: from ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS- phenomena that arise in any group of people as a result of their mental mutual reflection in the process of communication ... Modern educational process: basic concepts and terms

Interpersonal relationships- Subjectively experienced connections between people. M. o. are manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint communication and activity. M.'s character about. largely predetermined individually ... ... Adaptive physical culture. Concise Encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• Special psychology and correctional pedagogy: interpersonal relationships of younger schoolchildren with hearing impairment. Textbook for bachelor's and specialist's degree Buy for 517 UAH (Ukraine only)
• Theoretical foundations of compensatory and correctional-developing education in primary grades. Interpersonal relationships of children with hearing impairment. Textbook for secondary vocational education, Rechitskaya E.G. The model for studying the interpersonal relations of children with hearing impairment and the model for the complex correctional and pedagogical work of their formation presented in this book were developed ...

1. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND COMMUNICATION

1.1 PLACE AND NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

In the socio-psychological literature, different points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relations are "located", primarily in relation to the system of social relations. The nature of interpersonal relations can be correctly understood if they are not put on a par with social relations, but if we see in them a special series of relations that arise within each type of social relations, not outside them.

The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is the emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be considered as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. In the domestic school of psychology, there are three types, or levels of emotional manifestations of the personality: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all kinds of these emotional manifestations.

Relations between people do not develop only on the basis of direct emotional contacts. The activity itself defines another series of relations mediated by it. Therefore, it is an extremely important and difficult task. social psychology simultaneous analysis of two series of relationships in a group: both interpersonal and mediated by joint activities, i.e. ultimately the social relations behind them.

All this raises a very acute question about the methodological means of such an analysis. Traditional social psychology focused primarily on interpersonal relationships, therefore, regarding their study, an arsenal of methodological tools was developed much earlier and more fully. The main of these means is the method of sociometry, widely known in social psychology, proposed by the American researcher J. Moreno, for which it is an application to his special theoretical position. Although the failure of this concept has long been criticized, the methodology developed within the framework of this theoretical framework has proved to be very popular.

Thus, we can say that interpersonal relationships are seen as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. But for the diagnosis of interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them, a sociometric technique is used, the founder of which is the American psychiatrist and social psychologist J. Moreno.

1.2 THE ESSENCE OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Interpersonal relationships are a set of connections that develop between people in the form of feelings, judgments and appeals to each other.

Interpersonal relationships include:

1) people's perception and understanding of each other;

2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and liking);

3) interaction and behavior (in particular, role-playing).

Components of interpersonal relationships:

1) cognitive component - includes all cognitive mental processes: sensations, perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Thanks to this component, there is a knowledge of the individual psychological characteristics of partners in joint activities and mutual understanding between people. The characteristics of mutual understanding are:

a) adequacy - the accuracy of the mental reflection of the perceived personality;

b) identification - identification by an individual of his personality with the personality of another individual;

2) emotional component - includes positive or negative experiences that arise in a person during interpersonal communication with other people:

a) likes or dislikes;

b) satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.;

c) empathy - an emotional response to the experiences of another person, which can manifest itself in the form of empathy (experiencing those feelings experienced by another), sympathy (personal attitude to the experiences of another) and complicity (empathy accompanied by assistance);

3) behavioral component - includes facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, speech and actions that express the relationship of a given person to other people, to the group as a whole. He plays a leading role in regulating relationships. The effectiveness of interpersonal relationships is assessed by the state of satisfaction - dissatisfaction of the group and its members.

Types of interpersonal relationships:

1) industrial relations - are formed between employees of organizations in solving industrial, educational, economic, domestic and other problems and imply fixed rules for the behavior of employees in relation to each other. They are divided into relationships:

a) vertically - between managers and subordinates;

b) horizontally - relations between employees who have the same status;

c) diagonally - the relationship between the leaders of one production unit with ordinary employees of another;

2) domestic relationships - are formed outside of work activities on vacation and at home;

3) formal (official) relations - normatively stipulated relations fixed in official documents;

4) informal (informal) relationships - relationships that actually develop in relationships between people and are manifested in preferences, likes or dislikes, mutual assessments, authority, etc.

The nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by such personal characteristics as gender, nationality, age, temperament, state of health, profession, experience of communicating with people, self-esteem, need for communication, etc. Stages of development of interpersonal relationships:

1) the stage of acquaintance - the first stage - the emergence of mutual contact, mutual perception and evaluation of each other by people, which largely determines the nature of the relationship between them;

2) the stage of friendly relations - the emergence of interpersonal relationships, the formation of an internal relationship of people to each other on the rational (realization by interacting people of the advantages and disadvantages of each other) and emotional levels (the emergence of appropriate experiences, emotional response, etc.);

3) companionship - rapprochement of views and support to each other; characterized by trust.

Communication as a category of psychological science. The problem of communication is traditionally in the focus of attention of domestic social psychologists due to its importance in all spheres of human life and social groups. Communication, as well as activity, consciousness, personality and a number of other categories, is not the subject of only psychological research. Therefore, the task of identifying the specifically psychological aspect of this category inevitably arises. At the same time, the question of the connection between communication and activity is fundamental. One of the methodological principles for revealing this relationship is the idea of ​​the unity of communication and activity. Based on this principle, communication is understood very broadly: as such a reality of human relations, which is a specific form of joint activity of people. That is, communication is considered as a form of joint activity. In the process of communication, not only a mutual exchange of activities is carried out, but also ideas, ideas, feelings, a system of relations “subject-subject(s)” is manifested and developed.

General concept of communication and its components.

Communication is an externally observable process that is realized in the form of calls to each other.

Communication is a subject-subject interaction of a person. It is in communication that a person demonstrates his personality. The object of activity in communication is another individual, another real or implied subject. The other subject is denoted by the term partner.

In the broadest sense, communication is an interindividual mutual influence of those who communicate on each other's mental states. Communication x is any reaction of an individual to another individual, including even the image of an individual. Communication follows from the corresponding human need for it. There are gender differences not in the volume, but in the specifics of communication. Even alone with himself, a person retains the functions of communication. Communication with oneself can include both internal monologues and internal dialogues. The objects of communication can be animals, and even inanimate objects. Communication with the immediately following, not delayed feedback reaction is called contact, and the situation itself is called contact. The act of mutual exchange of single influences on each other is a unit of communication called a transaction. In a single process of communication, three sides can be conditionally distinguished: communicative (information transfer), interactive (interaction) and perceptual (mutual perception). The communicative component of communication includes the transfer of information from person to person using certain means. These means can be divided into two groups: verbal (linguistic) and non-verbal.

The interactive component of communication is, first of all, the features of the interaction of partners, which are determined by their personal states. The perceptual component of communication characterizes it as the perception of a person by another person (social or interpersonal perception). In many ways, this perception occurs under the influence of a social personal attitude, which is formed on the basis of past experience, national and professional stereotypes. All three components are used in the process of communication simultaneously and are singled out only for the convenience of scientific, experimental research. Psychology of speech utterance and psychology of speech understanding. The following speech processes are distinguished:

1. Related to the production of speech: speaking and writing.
2. Relating to the perception of speech: listening and reading.
3. Thought process - understanding: 1. The initial level of understanding of messages - understanding of words. 2. Understanding word combinations, their decoding. In Russian, understanding at this level includes: understanding of inflectional relations; understanding of attributive structures; understanding of the relations expressed by prepositions; understanding of comparative constructions; understanding of inverted constructions; understanding phrases with double negatives. This level is in and of itself without first a certain understanding of the text. 3. Understanding the meaning of the message as a whole. The meaning of a text is not the sum of the meanings of its constituent words and sentences. Moreover, the actual meaning of the text may be in general a hint contained in the subtext.

In communication, people often formulate thoughts in such a way as to preserve the possibility of retracting what was said. The subject of speaking is a certain thought. The purpose of speaking is the expression of thought, i.e., the transformation of an idea into a message. The product of speaking is a speech statement. The result of speaking is the partner's response. The unit of speaking is a speech act. Psychological components of speech culture. Speech culture regulates relations in the system man → culture → language. It manifests itself in speech behavior, in speech self-identification among the varieties of the national language. The culture of speech is such a choice and organization of language means that, in a certain situation of communication, while observing language norms and ethics, can ensure the greatest effect of the communicative task.

Communicative qualities of speech:

1. Correctness, purity of speech.
2. Accuracy, logic.
3. Expressiveness, figurativeness.
4. Accessibility, understandability.
5. Validity, relevance.

The main components of the culture of communication:

1. The richness of speech is the possession of the necessary set of tools.
2. Accuracy - building communication in accordance with goals.
3. Ability to focus on communication.
4. The desire to take into account the position of the interlocutor.

Types and structure of communication.

2. According to the goals, communication is divided into: a) biological (necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism); b) social (pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual).

3. By means of communication can be: a) direct (carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being - hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.); b) indirect (associated with the use of special means and tools); c) direct (involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other communicating people in the very act of communication); d) indirect (carried out through intermediaries, which may be other people).

4. By the number of communicants: a) interpersonal (one + one); b) public (one + a few); c) mass (one + many). It is possible to characterize the structure of communication by highlighting 3 sides in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual. The structure of communicative competence includes communicative knowledge, skills, abilities and abilities.

Technical components of communication. 2 groups of techniques:

1. active listening techniques;
2. Techniques for regulating emotional stress.

Groups of active listening techniques:

1. Question formulation techniques;
2. Small talk technique. With the help of these 2 techniques, the ability to talk is realized in a situation of interaction.
3. Verbalization technique - stage "A";
4. Verbalization technique - stage "B";
5. Verbalization technique - stage "B".

With the help of these 3 techniques, the ability to hear and understand is realized in a situation of interaction. Small talk technique. A small conversation is a conversation on an interesting and pleasant topic for the interlocutors. The purpose of a small talk is to create a favorable psychological atmosphere and lay the foundations for sympathy and trust; restore emotional balance.

Verbal and non-verbal communication. In communication, classes, types and varieties of communication are distinguished depending on the sign systems used. Classes: non-verbal and verbal communication. There are 4 types of non-verbal communication:

1. Kinesics is the use of opto-kinetic sign systems. Varieties: use of gestures for communication; facial expressions; pantomime (use of signs of postures and body movements); display or demonstration in a communication situation (communication by drawings); use of decor; use of items.
2. Use of paralinguistic and extralinguistic sign systems.
3. varieties: paralinguistic sign system (vocalization system, i.e. voice quality, its range, tonality, timbre, etc. as a sign); extralinguistic system of signs (a system of pauses, inclusions, such as coughing, crying, etc.).
4. Proxemics is the use of space-time characteristics as signs. Varieties: use of space as a sign (for example, distance); use of temporal characteristics as a sign of communication.
5. Eye Contact – This system only works with visual communication.

The class of verbal communication has one type, which is called speech communication. The sign system is language. Depending on the carrier of the content, 3 varieties are distinguished: sound speech; written speech; sign language of the deaf. Listening as a component of communication. Listening can be passive (non-reflexive) or active (reflexive). Passive listening includes non-verbal forms of communication (shaking the head, etc.). Active listening includes paraphrasing what was said by the partner, asking clarifying questions, etc. Communicative personality traits. Sociability, sincerity, friendliness. People who are secretive, shy, distrustful, selfish hardly come into contact and do not immediately show trust in their communication partners.

The concept of competence in communication (L. A. Petrovskaya). Communicative competence (Petrovskaya L.A.) is a set of skills and abilities necessary for effective communication. The basis of communicative competence is not just the knowledge of the language and other codes of communication, but the personality traits of the individual as a whole, in the unity of his thoughts, feelings and actions that unfold in a particular social context. Characteristics of a person with high communicative competence. Signs:

1. Fast, timely and accurate orientation in the situation of interaction and in partners.
2. The desire to understand another person in the context of the requirements in a particular situation.
3. Installation in contact not only for business, but also for a partner. This is a respectful, benevolent attitude towards the partner and taking into account his condition and capabilities and other signs.

The main problems of perception of a person by a person (A. A. Bodalev and others). In acts of mutual cognition, the action of the three most important mechanisms of interpersonal perception should be singled out: identification, reflection and stereotyping.

Identification is a way of understanding another person through conscious or unconscious assimilation of his characteristics to the characteristics of the subject himself. In interaction situations, people make assumptions about the internal state, intentions, thoughts, motives and feelings of another person based on an attempt to put themselves in his place. Awareness by the subject of how he is perceived by a communication partner is called reflection.

Reflection is part of the perception of another person. Thus, the perception of a person by a person can be likened to a double mirror reflection. A person, reflecting another, reflects himself in the mirror of perception of this other. In the processes of communication, identification and reflection act as a unity. The causal explanation of the actions of another person by attributing feelings, intentions, thoughts and motives of behavior to him is called causal attribution. Causal attribution is carried out most often unconsciously - either on the basis of identification with another person, that is, when attributing to another those motives or feelings that the subject himself, as he believes, would have found in a similar situation, or by assigning a communication partner to a certain category persons, in relation to which certain stereotypical ideas have been developed.

Stereotyping- classification of forms of behavior and interpretation (sometimes without any reason) of their causes by referring to already known or seemingly known phenomena, i.e., corresponding to social stereotypes. The stereotype here is the formed image of a person, which is used as a stamp. At the same time, stereotypical knowledge can be erroneous. In some cases, stereotyping may have the character of prejudice. An essential basis for the formation of bias and subjectivism is the preliminary information that a person receives about the object of perception.

Interactive side of communication. Interactive communication - characterizes those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the organization of their activities. The interactive side of communication is a conditional term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. Some authors simply identify communication and interaction, presenting both as communication in the narrow sense of the word (i.e., as an exchange of information), others consider the relationship between interaction and communication as a relationship between the form of some process and its content. Sometimes they prefer to talk about the related, but still independent existence of communication as communication and interaction as interaction.

Interaction is the side that captures not only the exchange of information, but also the organization of joint actions that allow partners to implement some common activity for them. The concept of interpersonal interaction. Contact of two or more subjects of activity, which can be of any form (direct and indirect, prolonged and momentary, in connection with the activity orientation to some goal or in the logic of actual communication, emotionally rich or neutral in this regard, etc.) , but at the same time leads to a change in their behavior, the system of semantic formations, the nature of relationships, the activity-setting personal mood, etc. In addition, in social psychology, the term "interaction" describes a system of reciprocal actions, deeds, the investigative nature of such activity of the two parties involved in interpersonal contact: in fact, any manifestation of the activity of one of the participants in the interaction turns out to be both a stimulus for the next behavioral act of the other and a kind of reaction to the previous actions of the partner or opponent. The most important characteristics of interpersonal interaction as an interactive side of communication are objectivity, explication, reflexive ambiguity and situationality. The objectivity of interaction in this case implies the presence of some object or task, about which interpersonal contact is realized. Types of interpersonal interaction.

Based on the motives of communication, the following are distinguished interaction strategies:

1. Cooperation - when partners have a motive to maximize the total gain.
2. Individualism - when partners have the motivation to maximize their own gain.
3. Competition is the motivation to maximize relative gain.
4. Altruism is the motivation to maximize the gain of the other.
5. Aggression is the motivation to minimize the gain of the other.
6. Equality is the motivation for minimizing differences in payoffs.

Most often, these strategies are combined into 2 forms (types):

1. Cooperation;
2. Rivalry.

In cooperation, the goals of the activities of communicating partners are common. Rivalry has many varieties:

1. Competition: when the goals of the activities of communicating partners are similar and not contradictory.
2. Competition: the goals are similar and contradictory.
3. Conflict: when the goals are opposite.

Separately, the so-called special types of interaction:

1. Manipulation, including psychological games.
2. Provocation.
3. Pressure or psychological pressure from a partner.
4. Violence.

At manipulation partners have different goals. The true goals of the manipulator are different than those that he shows, reveals, demonstrates to a partner. The manipulator's dominant motivation is to control the behavior of the other by creating such a situation that the partner is forced to behave in a way that is beneficial to the manipulator. The opposite of the manipulator is the personality actualizer. The Actualizer may not tell the whole truth, but it does not deceive. Complexly constructed chains of manipulative influences on each other are called psychological games.

Psychological games is the mutual exploitation of each other's expectations by partners. Provocation is the inducing in a partner of the behavior necessary to justify or self-justify one's own behavior.

Pressure is a reference to the possibility of violence. Pressure on a partner using compromising information is called blackmail. Violence is an interaction saturated with aggression. There are 2 forms of violence:

1. Coercion (softer) is the reluctance of a person to perform certain actions with the help of threats and deprivation.
2. An attack is a sudden attack on someone else's psyche or someone else's body.

Personality in the process of interpersonal interaction(effects of facilitation, compatibility, conformity).

facilitation effect. In the presence of an observer, a person performs easy tasks better (facilitation), and difficult ones worse (inhibition). The presence of others increases a person's social arousal, it enhances the dominant reaction (performing an easy task, a person evaluates it accordingly and expects the observer to evaluate him as well and tries to meet the observer's expectations, namely, to solve easy tasks quickly and correctly, and vice versa). A person "gives up" his point of view in favor of group standards.

compatibility effect. Interpersonal compatibility develops in the dyadic range. It requires the mutual satisfaction of the members of the dyad of each other's needs and behavioral phenomena. Interpersonal compatibility in the group was considered by Krichevsky in connection with 2 types of group activities: business (instrumental) and emotional (IL). There are 4 types of compatibility: based on the teamwork and harmony of partners; operational-role - understanding to partners of plans and actions of each other; compatibility in personality traits; compatibility in game communication.

conformity effect. Conformism is the refusal of a person from his point of view in favor of the majority in case of disagreement of opinions. Ash researched. Group pressure functions:

1. Helps to achieve the goal in joint activities.
2. Creates a certain standard, common to the group, which will be different from others.
3. Helps group members determine their relationship to the social environment.

The structure of interpersonal relationships. The whole set of human relations with society is denoted by the concept of social relations. Among social relations, it is customary to specifically single out interpersonal relations, the relations of people as individuals that exist both on their own and accompany other social relations, which we call business, official, etc. The closest communication is kindred communication. Marriage is the most important relationship for a person. Relationships are the product of communication and every aspect of communication is a factor in the relationship.

Formal and informal relationships in the group. Researchers distinguish the subordination of systems of relations in a group, their level arrangement:

1. official relations;
2. unofficial business relationship;
3. Informal emotional relationships.

M. A. Ivanov singled out 2 levels of interpersonal relations: between members of the team; between leaders and academics. Within each level, relationships are divided into business and personal.

The social status of the individual in the group. The formal-status dimension gives an idea of ​​the subordination of the positions of individuals in the system of official relations in a small group. According to Levin and Moreland (1996), the formal status of an individual in a group affects the nature of his relationship with other members of the group. Compared to low-status group members, high-status individuals have more opportunities to:

1. Exercising open influence on other members of the group. Do it more often and more efficiently.
2. High-status people are more likely to be judged more positively than low-status people. They are credited with more efficiency, authority, sociability, etc.
3. High-status people outperform low-status people in terms of self-esteem and self-respect. There are 5 components of a high-status group member: 1. More conforming; 2. High status in the group is ensured by full agreement with group norms. 3. The greatest adherence to group norms is demonstrated by the person who occupies the second most prestigious position in the group.
4. Deviation from group norms may be allowed.
5. Sometimes the behavior of a high-status group member correlates less directly with group norms than with the expectations of low-status group members.

Ways to study interpersonal relationships in a group.

one). Method of sociometric measurements (sociometry). Sociometric technique is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change them. With the help of sociometry, you can study the typology social behavior people in the conditions of group activity, to judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

2). Determination of the Seashore Group Cohesion Index. The methodology consists of 5 questions with several answers for each. Answers are coded in points. The maximum amount is 19 points, the minimum is 5.

3). Determination of the psychological climate of the group. Map-scheme of Lutoshkin. On the left side of the sheet, those qualities of the team that characterize a favorable psychological climate are described, on the right - the qualities of a team with a clearly unfavorable climate. The degree of manifestation of certain qualities can be determined using a seven-point scale placed in the center of the sheet (from +3 to -3). To present a general picture of the psychological climate of the team, it is necessary to add up all the positive and negative points. And other methods. The role of the socio-psychological qualities of the individual in optimizing interpersonal relationships in the group.

Empathy as a mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships. N.N. Obozov considers empathy as a process (mechanism) and includes cognitive, emotional and effective components in it. According to him, empathy has three levels. The hierarchical structural-dynamic model is based on cognitive empathy (the first level), which manifests itself in the form of understanding the mental state of another person without changing one's state. The second level of empathy involves emotional empathy, not only in the form of understanding the state of another person, but also empathy and sympathy for him, empathic response. This form of empathy includes two options. The first is connected with the simplest empathy, which is based on the need for one's own well-being. Another, transitional form from emotional to effective empathy, finds its expression in the form of sympathy, which is based on the need for the well-being of another person. The third level of empathy is the highest form, including cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. It fully expresses interpersonal identification, which is not only mental (perceived and understood) and sensual (empathetic), but also effective. At this level of empathy, real actions and behavioral acts are manifested to provide assistance and support to a communication partner (sometimes this style of behavior is called helping). There are complex interdependencies between the three forms of empathy (Obozov, 1979). In the presented approach, the second and third levels of empathy (emotional and effective) are convincingly and logically substantiated. At the same time, its first level (cognitive empathy), associated with understanding the state of other people without changing one's state), is, in our opinion, a purely cognitive process. Mutual understanding in the process of communication. Mutual understanding is directly related to communication, understanding, relationships between people.

Mutual understanding is a complex, holistic process of understanding oneself, another and understanding others. Mutual understanding is possible with a common understanding of the information and the situation of communication, because understanding the other does not mean that he also understands you. Mutual understanding is possible not only in dyads, but also between the individual and the collective, between collectives, between groups. The mechanisms of communication (identification, reflection, empathy) are at the same time the mechanisms of the process of mutual understanding. Mutual understanding contributes to the regulation of the behavior of partners. Mutual understanding contributes to the implementation of joint activities. The achievement of mutual understanding between people is facilitated by the conformity of the socio-historical conditions of people's lives, the same level of their culture, mental development, belonging to the same social groups, common language and the same levels of mastering it. The most important condition for the emergence of mutual understanding is the coincidence of the ideas of the participants in the interaction. 4 conditions for mutual understanding in communication and joint activities (V. V. Znakov):

1. Mnemic condition (a person understands only what resonates in his memory. For understanding, some preliminary knowledge in what is understood is necessary).
2. Target generalized condition (a person usually understands only what corresponds to his forecasts, hypotheses, goals).
3. Empathic condition (it is impossible to understand another person without entering into a personal relationship with him, without showing empathy towards him).
4. Normative condition (in order to achieve mutual understanding, the subjects of communication must proceed from the same postulates of communication and correlate the subject of discussion with the same social patterns, norms of behavior).

Personal characteristics that affect mutual understanding: social affiliation, nationality, age, lifestyle, etc. The influence of the profession on communication. Actors are characterized by a playful style of communication with others, as they get used to the frequent performance of different roles and often get used to them, as if continuing the game of real human relationships. Teachers and leaders, due to the established non-democratic traditions in the sphere of business and pedagogical communication, are often characterized by an arrogant tone. Doctors, especially psychotherapists, usually show increased attention and sympathy in dealing with people.

The basis of interpersonal relations is communication - the need of a person as a social, rational being, as a carrier of consciousness.

Communication is a process of interpersonal interaction generated by the needs of interacting subjects and aimed at satisfying these needs. The role and intensity of communication in modern society is constantly increasing, because with the increase in the volume of information, the processes of exchange of this information become more intense, the number of technical means for such an exchange increases. In addition, an increasing number of people professional activity which is associated with communication, i.e. having professions such as "man is man".

In psychology, there are important aspects of communication: content, purpose and means.

Purpose of communication- this is what a living being has this type of activity for. In animals, this may be, for example, a warning of danger. A person has much more goals of communication. And if in animals the goals of communication are usually associated with the satisfaction of biological needs, then in humans they are a means of satisfying many diverse needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth and moral development, etc.

Means of communication- these are ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. Information can be conveyed through direct bodily contact, such as tactile hand contact; it can be transmitted and perceived at a distance through the senses, for example, by observing the movements of another person or listening to the sound signals produced by him. In addition to all these natural ways of transmitting information, a person has others invented by himself - this is language, writing (texts, drawings, diagrams, etc.), as well as all kinds of technical means recording, transmission and storage of information.

Communication can be divided into several types (Fig. 15).

Rice. 15. Classification of types of communication

Communication between people can be verbal and non-verbal.

non-verbal- this is communication without the use of linguistic means, that is, with the help of facial expressions and gestures; its result is tactile, visual, auditory and olfactory images received from another individual.

verbal communication takes place with the help of any language.

Most non-verbal forms of communication in humans are innate; with the help of them, a person achieves interaction on an emotional level, and not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings. Many of the higher animals (for example, monkeys, dogs, dolphins), just like humans, have the ability to communicate non-verbally with their own kind. Verbal communication is unique to humans. It has much wider possibilities than non-verbal.

communication functions, according to the classification of L. Karpenko, are the following:

contact- establishing contact between communication partners, readiness to receive and transmit information;

informational– obtaining new information;

incentive- stimulation of the activity of the communication partner, directing him to perform certain actions;

coordination- mutual orientation and coordination of actions for organizing joint activities;

reaching mutual understanding- adequate perception of the meaning of the message, understanding by partners of each other;

exchange of emotions- excitation in the partner of the necessary emotional experiences;

relationship building- awareness of one's place in the system of role, status, business and other relations of society;

influence- a change in the state of the communication partner - his behavior, intentions, opinions, decisions, and so on.

V structure of communication There are three interrelated aspects:

1) communicative- exchange of information between communicating individuals;

2) interactive– interaction between communicating individuals;

3) perceptual- mutual perception of communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

When talking about communication in communication, then, first of all, they mean that in the process of communication people exchange different ideas, ideas, interests, feelings, etc. and active exchange of it. The main feature is that people in the process of exchanging information can influence each other.

The communicative process is born on the basis of some joint activity, and the exchange of knowledge, ideas, feelings, etc. suggests that such activity is organized. In psychology, two types of interaction are distinguished: cooperation (collaboration) and competition (conflict).

So, communication is a process of interaction between people, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest and form. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, experiences. In the process of interpersonal communication, people consciously or unconsciously influence the mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions of each other. The functions of communication are very diverse, it is a decisive condition for the formation of each person as a person, the implementation of personal goals and the satisfaction of a number of needs. Communication is the internal mechanism of joint activity of people and is the most important source of information for a person.

2. Perception

The process of perception by one person of another is an obligatory component of communication and is what is called perception. The perceptual side of communication explains the perception and understanding of another person and oneself, the establishment of mutual understanding and interaction on this basis. In perception, an important role is given to the installation in communication. Often the formation of the first impression of a stranger depends on the characteristic given to him. And then in it, depending on the attitude, some will find positive features, others - negative ones. In perception, it is possible perception errors, the reasons for which may be:

The "halo" effect- information received about a person before direct communication with him, forms a biased idea about him even before his perception;

¦ effect of "novelty"- when perceiving a stranger, the primary information about him (the so-called first impression) often seems to be the most significant;

The stereotype effect- arises due to insufficient information about a person and exists in the form of a certain stable image.

3. Attraction

In the process of perception, not just the perception of each other takes place, but a whole gamut of feelings is born, emotional relationships arise, the formation mechanism of which is studied by attraction.

attraction- this is the emergence, when a person is perceived by a person, of the attractiveness of one of them for another. There are a few ways you can use to create an attraction:

reception "proper name"

when communicating, more often refer to a partner by name and patronymic, since such an appeal serves as an indicator of attention and unconsciously evokes positive emotions;

reception "mirror of the soul"

a friendly facial expression, a smile when communicating signal friendly relations and good intentions;

reception "golden words"

do not skimp during communication on compliments, praise, which any person needs;

patient listener technique

be able to listen with interest and patiently to your interlocutor, to let him speak;

reception "preliminary information"

when communicating, use knowledge about your interlocutor (character, temperament, hobbies, marital status, etc.).

Thus, communication is a complex, multifaceted socio-psychological process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities, communication and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.

Considering technologies, techniques and rules of communication, they usually proceed from the idea of ​​constructive, positive communication. Exists a few rules of constructive communication, the purpose of which is to achieve the best result during communication, for example:

Speak in a language understandable to both partners;

Show respect for the partner, emphasize his importance;

Emphasize commonality with a partner (professional, gender, ethnic, confessional, age, etc.);

Show interest in your partner's problems.

4. Communication and speech

One of the main features of a person is our ability to interact. People transmit various information to each other, report their mental states and feelings.

The most important achievement of man, which allowed him to use universal human experience, both past and present, was verbal communication.Speech is the process of communication through language.

The possibility of verbal communication is one of the main differences between a person and the rest of the animal world, reflecting the laws of his physiological, mental and social development.

The classification of types of speech (Fig. 16) is carried out on the basis of the presence of certain signs. For example, monologue speech is always active, planned, involves the ability to use any language, different intonations, use pauses during a monologue, etc. While the hallmarks of inner speech are fragmentation and fragmentation.

External and kinetic speech mainly play the role of means of communication, while inner speech plays the role of means of thinking.

The physiological basis of speech is the activity of auditory and motor analyzers, as well as the resulting temporary connections between external stimuli and movements of the vocal cords, larynx, tongue and other organs that regulate the pronunciation of words.

The main properties of verbal communication include:

informative;

clarity;

expressiveness.

Rice. sixteen. Classification of types of speech

In the communication of people, as a rule, there is an emotional coloring, which is the basis of non-verbal communication. Means of non-verbal communication as a kind of language of feelings are a product of social development and do not coincide in different national cultures, in different age groups, professional communities, social groups. For example, for Bulgarians, a vertical nod of the head means disagreement with the interlocutor, for Russians it means agreement, in China the color of mourning is white, and in the West it is black. Compliance of the means of non-verbal communication used with the goals and content of the verbal transmission of information is one of the elements of the culture of communication.

In psychology, the concepts of "speech" and "language" are separated.

Speech - this is a set of spoken or perceived sounds, as well as means of non-verbal communication, having the same meaning and meaning as the corresponding system of written signs.

Language - This is a system of conditional symbols, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. Language is developed by society and is a product of socio-historical development. This is a rather complex formation, characterized by grammar, lexical and phonetic composition. The language is the same for all people who speak it, but each person's speech is individual, peculiar. It expresses the psychology of a single person belonging to a certain community, which is characterized by certain features of speech.

Speech without mastering the language is impossible, at the same time, the language exists and develops according to laws that are not related to psychology and human behavior.

Human speech can be expanded and abbreviated. The expanded type of speech is characterized by a large vocabulary and various grammatical forms, frequent use of prepositions, use of impersonal pronouns, clarifying adjectives and adverbs, numerous subordinating sentence components, which indicates a person planning his speech. Abbreviated speech utterances are usually used in everyday speech, in a familiar and familiar environment.

Psychology of personality: lecture notes Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

LECTURE No. 14. Communication and interpersonal relationships

Among the factors that normalize personality, in psychology, work, communication and cognition are distinguished. Communication- communication between people, during which there is a psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, mutual understanding. Communication is aimed at establishing psychological contact between them; its goals are to change the relationship between people, to establish mutual understanding, to influence knowledge, opinions, attitudes, feelings and other manifestations of the orientation of the individual; means - various forms of self-expression of the individual. There are contacts between people in communication necessary condition the existence of the individual.

V Lately in science, along with the concept of “communication”, the concept of “communication” is used. In publications you can find different interpretation these concepts. In psychology, the following relationship has been established between them. Communication- communication, the interaction of two systems, during which a signal carrying information is transmitted from one system to another. If two electronic systems exchange information, then they say that there is communication between them.

Communication- the exchange of information between people. A person can communicate with other people not only in direct contact. Watching a TV show, reading a book are also acts of communication. Thus, “communication” is a narrower concept than the concept of “communication”. Emphasizing the role of communication as a specific factor in the formation of the psyche, B. F. Lomov wrote: "When we study the lifestyle of a particular individual, we cannot limit ourselves to analyzing only what and how he does, we must also investigate with whom and how he communicates."

Communication involves the transfer of information. The content of communication is scientific and worldly knowledge. Skills and abilities can be transferred in communication.

All these are just some of the content of communication. There are many specific topics for communication, and the more diverse topics of communication, the richer and more meaningful the personality of a person.

The appearance of a person is consciously changed and to a certain extent created by him. The appearance is made up of a physiognomic mask, clothes, demeanor. The physiognomic mask - the dominant facial expression - is formed under the influence of thoughts, feelings, and relationships that often arise in a person. Hairstyle, cosmetics, etc. significantly contribute to the creation of a mask. Evil, kind, arrogant, benevolent and other physiognomic masks can be noted. Complements the appearance and clothing, which is often an indicator of class, estate, professional affiliation. The dress code obliges to a certain type of behavior. Military uniform requires discipline. The cheerfulness of a man in mourning clothes seems strange to us. In the manner of holding one can see the upbringing of a person, his position, self-esteem, attitude towards the person with whom he communicates. To establish contacts between people, for the content and emotional side of communication, the appearance of a person has great importance: on its basis, the first impression is formed, which often determines the development of relations.

Appearance and physiognomic mask are static. The dynamic side of communication is manifested in gestures and facial expressions. facial expressions- dynamic facial expression at the moment of communication.

Gesture- a socially developed movement that conveys a mental state. Both facial expressions and gestures develop as social means of communication, although some of the elements that make them up are innate. The social dependence of facial expressions is confirmed by the fact that in the conditions of different cultures the same facial expressions and gestures can have diametrically opposite meanings. For example, wide-open eyes in a Japanese are a sign of anger, while in a European, friendliness and surprise.

Non-verbal means of communication include the exchange of objects, things. Passing objects to each other, people establish contacts, express their attitude towards each other.

The means of communication is also tactile-muscular sensitivity. Mutual contact, muscle tension for movement directed at another person, or withholding from it - these are the limits of such communication. Specific manifestations of it can be a handshake, finding a child in the arms of a mother, martial arts athletes. With the help of tactile-muscular sensitivity, a person learns physical strength, some personality traits, attitudes of another person, in turn, shows some of its own qualities and expresses an attitude towards it. Tactile-muscular sensitivity is the main channel for obtaining information from the outside world and the main means of communication for people deprived of hearing and vision, and thus the ability to naturally master sound speech.

Currently, much attention is paid to the communicative meaning of distance in communication. In American psychology, even the name for this area of ​​\u200b\u200bresearch has appeared - proxemics. Proxemics explores the location of people in space during communication and identifies the following distances in human contacts:

1) intimate area (15–45 cm); only close, well-known people are allowed into this zone; it is characterized by trust, a low voice when communicating, tactile contact, and touch. Studies show that violation of the intimate zone entails certain changes in the body: an increase in the heartbeat, a rush of blood to the head, etc. Premature intrusion into the intimate zone in the process of communication is always perceived by the interlocutor as an attack on his immunity;

2) personal, or personal, zone (45-120 cm) for everyday conversation with friends and colleagues involves only visual eye contact between partners who support the conversation;

3) the social zone (120-400 cm) is usually observed during official meetings in offices, teaching and other office premises, as a rule, with those who are not very well known;

4) a public area (over 400 cm) implies communication with a large group of people (in a lecture hall, at a rally, etc.).

The first level (macro level). In this case, communication is considered as the most important aspect of a person's lifestyle, in which they study the prevailing content, the circle of people with whom she mainly contacts, the established style of communication, and other parameters. All this is due to social relations, the social conditions of a person's life. In addition, considering this level, one should take into account what rules, traditions, accepted norms a person adheres to. The time interval of such communication is the entire previous and future life of the individual.

Second level (mesa level). Communication at this level involves contacts on a specific topic. Moreover, the implementation of the topic can be carried out with one person or group, it can end in one session or require several meetings, acts of communication. As a rule, a person has several topics that he implements sequentially or in parallel. In both cases, communication partners can be individuals or groups.

The third level (micro level). It involves an act of communication in the role of a kind of elementary particle (unit). Such an act of communication can be considered a question and answer, a handshake, a meaningful look, a mimic movement in response, etc. Through elementary units, themes are realized that form the entire system of communication of a person in a certain period of his life.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book Psychology of Personality: Lecture Notes author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

LECTURE № 16. Interpersonal relations in groups and collectives. The concept of psychological incompatibility There are relationships and relationships in groups and collectives. Attitude is the position of a person to everything that surrounds her, and to herself. Man anyway

author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

11.1. Interpersonal relationships and their classification Interpersonal relationships are relationships that develop between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences, express inner world person. Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following

From the book Psychology of Communication and Interpersonal Relations author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

CHAPTER 14 Interpersonal Relations K. A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya (1981) writes that “the psychology of communication isolates its subject when it considers how two, coming into contact, create something third, which is the relationship between them” (p. 225). So tear off

From the book Psychology of Communication and Interpersonal Relations author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

CHAPTER 18 Communication and interpersonal relationships between medical workers and patients The effectiveness of treatment largely depends on how the relationship between the doctor and the patient develops. Prerequisites for the emergence of positive relationships and trust between medical

From the book Psychology of Communication and Interpersonal Relations author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

CHAPTER 19 Interpersonal Relations and Communication in the Family The family is another important area of ​​human life in which constant and close communication takes place and in which peculiar interpersonal relationships are formed. After all, marriage is defined as legally fixed

From the book Psychology of Personality author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

24. Communication and interpersonal relationships Communication is a connection between people, during which a psychological contact arises, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, mutual understanding. Recently, science has been using the concept

From the book Ethnopsychology author Stefanenko Tatiana Gavrilovna

1.1. Intergroup and interpersonal relations Interethnic relations can be analyzed from different points of view, therefore, many sciences are engaged in the study of problems related to interethnic relations - cultural anthropology, political science, sociology, economics,

From the book to the Educator about sexology author Kagan Viktor Efimovich

Adolescent psyche and interpersonal relationships Adolescence is usually called, and not without reason, difficult, linking its difficulties with a special "teenage psyche". Representatives of biogenetic universalism late XIX- beginning of XX century. understood the teenage crisis

From the book Games played by "We". Fundamentals of Behavioral Psychology: Theory and Typology author Kalinauskas Igor Nikolaevich

Public relations are interpersonal relations Public relations are primarily interpersonal relations. This means that a set of behaviors of one person (setting behavior) necessarily meets a set of behaviors (setting behavior)

author Riterman Tatyana Petrovna

Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal communication as an interaction between people, a condition for their mutual understanding and relationships between them is a process that can be considered as a “person-person” system in all its multifaceted dynamics.

From the book Psychology. Full course author Riterman Tatyana Petrovna

Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal interaction unites not only private concepts, such as mutual understanding, mutual assistance (mutual assistance), empathy, mutual influence. It also includes opposite categories - mutual misunderstanding,

From the book Psychology. Full course author Riterman Tatyana Petrovna

Interpersonal Relationships Interpersonal relationships can be viewed from various angles. On the one hand, interpersonal relationships include subjectively experienced relationships between people, which are objectively found in the character and methods

author Volkov Pavel Valerievich

4. Interpersonal relationships (features of communication) The defensive conflict of the asthenic manifests itself in a variety of ways in his behavior. One of them characteristically said to himself: "I am running from the mink to the palace." Asthenik is looking for a small cozy corner in life to hide his soul there.

From the book A Variety of Human Worlds author Volkov Pavel Valerievich