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A hypothesis is a statement that requires evidence, acts as an assumption or conjecture. A hypothesis can act as a form of development of the scientific side of knowledge, by clarifying the properties of the objects under study and experimental evidence of the assumptions put forward. It acts only as a conditional preliminary explanation of the causes, properties or other characteristics and processes related to the object of study. This conjecture is not a stable true or previously false statement that requires verification and subsequent proof or refutation, after which this assumption ceases to exist as a hypothetical and takes the form of a proven or false fact.
Hypothesis is the main tool of psychological research and a way to expand knowledge. So, at the first stages, the problem of research is posed, the object is selected, then a hypothetical component is developed, on the basis of which the relevant experimental methods are determined and the actual methods of collecting data for information analysis are indicated, after which the logical verification of the put forward assumption for truth is made.
The asserted assertion is not closed to changes by the structure. After proving or refuting the proposed assumption, it is possible to make additions and adjustments, subject to the presence or appearance of new, not taken into account or previously unknown factors, but the guess itself will retain its constant value.
The assumption put forward in the study can have both a general and a particular application, have a different depth of newly acquired knowledge, relate to clearly defined areas or be at the intersection of sciences, contributing to mutual integration. The ways in which hypothetical prerequisites arise are also different, which depends on the peculiarities of the author’s thinking, since the mechanism for their generation is similar to the mechanism for creating a new one. creative idea. The assumption can be intuitive and logical.
What is a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a scientific research assumption, the authenticity of which is to be established. The semantic load of this assumption concerns the identification of the presence (absence) of certain causes (connections, consequences) between the processes (phenomena) established by the researcher. In the course of the construction and implementation of the study, which has as its essence the determination of the truth or falsity of the assumption, the very wording of the proposed statement may undergo adjustments and clarifications.
The hypothesis method is an integrated approach, the result of which is the establishment, definition and expansion of theories and principles that explain the surrounding reality. Initially, a theoretical acquaintance with the phenomenon under study and attempts to explain it by means of existing regularities is used. In the absence of a description of the necessary regularities, the researcher independently puts forward possible assumptions about the determinations and regularities of the phenomena of interest, from among which he chooses the most probable. Further, the hypothetical assumption, using theoretical methods, is checked for the degree of compliance with the necessary theories and principles, processed and adjusted in accordance with them. In conclusion, an experimental verification of the proposed assumption is carried out.
A hypothetical assumption is a statement that satisfies the following characteristics: includes one (rarely more than one) statement; processes and categories that are conjecture components should not imply ambiguity of interpretation and be clearly and unambiguously defined by the researcher; the statement must be verifiable, conditioned by certain facts and have a simple logical construction.
The hypothesis method includes the stages of proposing (where it is formulated taking into account all the above requirements) and testing a certain assumption put forward (depending on the outcome of the test, the statement either becomes a theory that is included in direct practical use, or is discarded or undergoes changes and becomes the basis for generating new ideas).
Conventionally, guesses can be divided into theoretical and empirical. The first ones cover the check for the absence of contradictions, the possibility of research, the compliance with the theory in which the assumption is put forward. Empirical elements cover observation and experimental study of the factors provided.
In order for a hypothesis to be included in a theory, a long process of integration must go through, as a result of which the former theoretical conclusion must become consistent with the explanations of the phenomena determined by the theory. Theory is a permanent established form, the principle of interaction, causal relationships that reflect the mechanisms of functioning of certain areas of reality. Theoretical patterns arise as a result of repeated research and testing, verification of the compliance of hypothetical premises and dissemination of results.
When planning a study, one should take into account and refer to already known facts and theories regarding the chosen topic, as well as take into account the non-banality of the hypothetical premise and the need to prove it.
When formulating assumptions, mistakes are made, in order to avoid them, it is necessary to take into account some features. Thus, a hypothesis should be formulated in terms of the scientific field to which it concerns, and correspond to previously studied data regarding the identified issues (in the case of absolute uniqueness and independence of the hypothesis, it should not contradict existing theories).
Types of hypotheses
When considering hypotheses, their types are distinguished based on various principles of classification. The main difference between hypothetical assumptions is determined by the cognitive functions presented, and also classified by the object of study. According to cognitive functions, subspecies are distinguished: a descriptive hypothesis and an explanatory one. Descriptive refers to the properties that are characteristic of the object, its structure, composition, features of functioning.
Descriptive can also relate to the existence of something (existential hypothesis), an example of such conclusions is the idea of the existence and possible location of Atlantis.
The explanatory type of hypothesis considers the mechanism and conditionality of the emergence of an object, natural phenomenon or designated study events.
If we trace the historical chronology of the emergence of the described types of hypotheses, we can notice a characteristic logical pattern. Initially, in the course of scientific interest in a certain chosen area, there are guesses of the existential spectrum. Under the condition of proving the existence of something, descriptive hypotheses arise that study objects that exist in reality and their properties, and only then do explanatory hypothetical assumptions arise that seek to find out the mechanisms of formation and emergence. With further study of the object, the hypotheses become more complicated and detailed.
Depending on the characteristics and scale of the object of study, there are general (this includes the patterns of connection between natural and social phenomena, the functioning of the psyche, which have a planetary confirmation) and particular (properties of specific individual manifestations, events, a selected separate group of objects, parts of the psyche) hypothetical conclusions.
At the initial stages of the study, a working hypothesis is formulated (the main one will be developed later), which is a conditional formulation, with the presence and help of which the collection and systematization of primary data is possible. With further analysis of the results obtained, the working hypothesis may remain and take a stable form, or undergo adjustments due to incompatibility with the facts found during the study.
According to the type of origin, hypotheses are divided into:
Hypotheses based on reality (to confirm the relevance of a certain theoretical model);
Scientific and experimental (establishing the determination of various patterns);
Empirical (were formulated for a specific case and cannot be used for mass explanation);
Experimental hypotheses (required for the organization of the experiment and actual confirmation);
Statistical hypotheses (needed to compare the parameters involved and influencing the validity).
Statistical hypothesis
Statistical is a non-experimentally proven assumption about the quantitative distribution of certain designated probabilities underlying the study. This is the correspondence of the sample to a certain classical normative distribution or the coincidence of the defining numerical characteristics.
Statistical hypothesis, as a method, has its application when the data of testing a previously put forward hypothesis cannot be interpreted as a justification for determining a hypothetical assumption, since the analysis of their result is considered insignificant.
In the psychological field, the statistical hypothesis is used to formulate a statement about the insignificant level of differences in the obtained indicators in the experimental and control samples. The assumption of this direction is checked by the methods of mathematical statistics. The significance level is affected by the sample size and the number of observations made.
The process of working with the use of a statistical hypothesis is reduced to the compilation of two prerequisites: putting forward the main hypothesis (null hypothesis) and an alternative assumption that denies the first one. When comparing the results in two samples, the zero guess indicates an insignificant difference in the results, and the alternative one indicates the presence of a significant indicator of differences.
The hypothesis is tested for reliability using special statistical criteria, parametric and non-parametric, the choice of which depends on the characteristics of the data array used. Parametric criteria have in their calculation various previously defined parameters of the probability distribution (dispersion, mean, standard deviation). Nonparametric criteria do not have probability distribution parameters in their calculation, they operate with ranks and frequency, their use is most relevant when the researcher has limited information about the characteristics of the sample.
Accordingly, at the time of choosing statistical criteria, the researcher should have the maximum amount of information about the sample and those indicators with which he works in order to select the correct and adequate package of static methods. An important point is to prioritize static criteria that are the easiest to understand for the researcher and most convenient to use.
Speaker of the Medical and Psychological Center "PsychoMed"
Reliable knowledge in the scientific or practical field is always preceded by a rational understanding and evaluation of the factual material delivered by observation. This mental activity is accompanied by the construction of various kinds of conjectures and hypothetical explanations of the observed phenomena. At first, the explanations are problematic. Further research corrects these explanations. As a result, science and practice overcome numerous deviations, misconceptions and contradictions and achieve objectively true results.
The decisive link in the cognitive chain that ensures the formation of new knowledge is hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a natural form of knowledge development, which is a reasonable assumption put forward in order to clarify the properties and causes of the phenomena under study.
The most important among those noted in the definition will be the following characteristic features of the hypothesis.
(1) A hypothesis is a form of knowledge development that is universal and necessary for any cognitive process. Where there is a search for new ideas or facts, regular relationships or causal dependencies, there is always a hypothesis. It acts as a link between previously achieved knowledge and new truths and at the same time a cognitive tool that regulates the logical transition from the previous incomplete and inaccurate knowledge to a new, more complete and more accurate one.
Thus, the development inherent in the process of cognition predetermines the functioning of the hypothesis in thinking as a necessary and universal form of such development.
(2) The construction of a hypothesis is always accompanied by the proposition assumptions about the nature of the phenomena under study, which is the logical core of the hypothesis and is formulated as a separate judgment or a system of interrelated judgments. It always
has a weakened epistemic modality: is problematic judgment, in which inaccurate knowledge is expressed.
In order to turn into reliable knowledge, a hypothesis is subject to scientific and practical verification. The process of testing the hypothesis, proceeding with the use of various logical techniques, operations and forms of inference, ultimately leads to refutation or under" assertion and further proof.
Thus, a hypothesis always contains something that needs to be tested. probable knowledge. Proven on its basis, the position is no longer actually a hypothesis, because it contains verified and undoubted true knowledge.
(3) The assumption that arises when constructing a hypothesis is born as a result of analysis of factual material, based on the generalization of numerous observations. An important role in the emergence of a fruitful hypothesis is played by the intuition, creativity and imagination of the researcher. However, a scientific hypothesis is not just a guess, fantasy or assumption, but based on specific materials. rationally justified rather than an intuitively and subconsciously accepted assumption.
The noted features make it possible to more clearly define the essential features of the hypothesis. Any hypothesis has initial data, or grounds, and end result - assumption. It also includes logical processing of initial data and move on to guessing. The final stage of knowledge - verification a hypothesis that turns an assumption into reliable knowledge or refutes it.
Types of hypotheses
In the process of knowledge development, hypotheses differ in their cognitive functions and object research.
1. By function in cognitive hypotheses are distinguished in the process: (1) descriptive and 2) explanatory.
(1)Descriptive hypothesis - this is an assumption about the properties inherent in the object under study. It usually answers the question:
"What is this item?" or “What properties does this item have?”
Descriptive hypotheses can be put forward in order to identify composition or structures object, disclosure mechanism or procedural features of its activities, definitions functional characteristics of the object.
So, for example, the hypothesis about the wave propagation of light that arose in the theory of physics was a hypothesis about the mechanism of light motion. The chemist's assumption about the components and atomic chains of the new polymer refers to hypotheses about the composition and structure. The hypothesis of a political scientist or lawyer, predicting the immediate or distant social effect of the adopted new package of laws, refers to functional assumptions.
A special place among descriptive hypotheses is occupied by hypotheses about existence any object that is called existential hypotheses. An example of such a hypothesis is the assumption that the continent of the western (America) and eastern (Europe and Africa) hemispheres once co-existed. The same will be the hypothesis of the existence of Atlantis.
(2)An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about the causes of the object of research. Such hypotheses usually ask: “Why did this event happen?” or “What are the reasons for the appearance of this item?”
Examples of such assumptions: the hypothesis of the Tunguska meteorite; the hypothesis of the appearance of ice ages on Earth; assumptions about the causes of extinction of animals in various geological epochs; hypotheses about the motives and motives for committing a specific crime by the accused, and others.
The history of science shows that in the process of knowledge development, existential hypotheses first arise, clarifying the fact of the existence of specific objects. Then there are descriptive hypotheses that clarify the properties of these objects. The last step is the construction of explanatory hypotheses that reveal the mechanism and causes of the emergence of the objects under study. The successive complication of hypotheses in the process of cognition - about existence, about properties, about causes - is a reflection of the dialectics inherent in the process of cognition: from simple to complex, from external to internal, from phenomenon to essence.
2. According to the object of study, hypotheses are distinguished: public and private.
(1)A general hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about regular relationships and empirical regularities. Examples of general hypotheses are: developed in the XVIII century. M.V. Lomonosov's hypothesis about the atomistic structure of matter; modern competing hypotheses of Academician O.Yu. Schmidt and Academician V.G. Fesenkov on the origin of celestial bodies; hypotheses about the organic and inorganic origin of oil and others.
General hypotheses play a role scaffolding in the development of scientific knowledge. Once proven, they become scientific theories and are a valuable contribution to the development of scientific knowledge.
(2) A partial hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about the origin and properties of single facts, specific events and phenomena. If a single circumstance caused the emergence of other facts and if it is inaccessible to direct perception, then its knowledge takes the form of a hypothesis about the existence or properties of this circumstance.
Particular hypotheses are put forward both in the natural sciences and in the socio-historical sciences. An archaeologist, for example, puts forward a hypothesis about the time of origin and belonging of objects discovered during excavations. A historian hypothesizes about the relationship between specific historical events or actions of individuals.
Particular hypotheses are also the assumptions that are put forward in forensic and investigative practice, because here one has to conclude about single events, the actions of individuals, individual facts that are causally related to a criminal act.
Along with the terms "general" and "particular hypothesis" in science, the term "working hypothesis".
A working hypothesis is an assumption put forward in the early stages of the study, which serves as a conditional assumption that allows you to group the results of observations and give them an initial explanation.
The specificity of the working hypothesis lies in its conditional and thus temporary acceptance. It is extremely important for the researcher to systematize the available factual data at the very beginning of the investigation, rationally process them and outline the paths for further searches. The working hypothesis just performs the function in the research process the first systematizer of facts.
The further fate of the working hypothesis is twofold. It is not excluded that it can turn from a working one into a stable fruitful hypothesis. At the same time, it can be replaced by other hypotheses if its incompatibility with new facts is established.
In historical, sociological or political research, as well as in judicial and investigative practice, when explaining individual facts or a set of circumstances, a number of hypotheses are often put forward that explain these facts in different ways. Such hypotheses
called versions (from the Latin versio - "turnover", versare - "modify").
The version in legal proceedings is one of the possible hypotheses explaining the origin or properties of individual legally significant circumstances or the crime as a whole.
When investigating crimes and litigation, versions are built that are different in content and coverage of the circumstances. Among them are distinguished general And private versions.
(1)The general version is an assumption that explains all crimes as a whole as a single system of specific circumstances. It answers not one, but many interrelated questions, clarifying the entire set of legally significant circumstances of the case. The most important of these questions will be the following:
what crime has been committed? who made it? where, when, under what circumstances and in what way it was committed? what are the goals, motives of the crime, the guilt of the offender?
The unknown real reason, about which the version is created, is not the principle of development or an objective regularity, but a specific set actual circumstances that make up a single crime. Covering all the issues to be clarified in court, such a version bears the features of a general summarizing assumption that explains the entire crime as a whole.
(2)A private version is an assumption that explains the individual circumstances of the crime in question. Being unknown or little known, each of the circumstances can be the subject of independent research; versions are also created about each of them, explaining the features and origin of these circumstances.
Examples of private versions can be the following assumptions: about the whereabouts of the stolen items or about the whereabouts of the offender; about the accomplices of the act; about the method of penetration of the offender to the place of the act; about the motives for committing a crime and many others.
Private and general versions are closely interconnected with each other in the process of investigation. The knowledge obtained with the help of private versions serves as the basis for constructing, concretizing and clarifying the general version explaining the criminal act as a whole. In turn, the general version makes it possible to outline the main directions for putting forward private versions about the circumstances of the case that have not yet been identified.
Glossary of financial terms
Hypothesis
structural part of the rule of law.
Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary
Hypothesis
Syn: conjecture, conjecture, conjecture, speculation
encyclopedic Dictionary
Hypothesis
(Greek, a hypothetical judgment about the regular (causal) connection of phenomena; a form of development of science.
Dictionary of Efremova
Hypothesis
- well.
- A scientific assumption put forward to combine any. phenomena and requiring verification, confirmation by experience.
- unfold Any guess, conjecture, assumption.
Ozhegov's dictionary
GUI ABOUT TESA, s, well.(book). Scientific assumption put forward to explain what. phenomena; general assumption that needs to be confirmed. Generate a fruitful hypothesis. G. was confirmed.
Culturology. Dictionary-reference
Hypothesis
(Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption) - a system of inference, through which, on the basis of a number of facts, a conclusion is made about the existence of an object, connection or cause of a phenomenon, and this conclusion cannot be considered absolutely reliable.
Modern economic dictionary. 1999
HYPOTHESIS
(from Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption)
Dictionary of economic terms
Hypothesis
(from Greek hypothesis- reason, conjecture
an assumption that has a scientific basis, put forward to explain economic processes and phenomena and to predict them. In economics, hypotheses are primarily associated with the development of forecasts or with the advancement of new theories.
Dictionary Ushakov
Hypothesis
hypothesis, hypotheses, female (Greek hypotheses) ( books.). A scientific assumption that has not been proven, but has a certain probability and explains a number of phenomena that are inexplicable without it ( scientific). Create a hypothesis. Come up with a hypothesis. Build hypotheses. Working hypothesis ( cm. 2).
| Any assumption, assumption, conjecture.
Pedagogical terminological dictionary
Hypothesis
(from Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption)
scientifically substantiated assumption about the regular (causal) connection of phenomena; one of the methods of knowledge; form of development of science. G. is tested by practice. Substantiated and confirmed by experience, G. turns into reliable knowledge, into a theory. The use of G. in schooling contributes to the development of students' logical thinking, imagination, and mastery of the elements of creative activity. Problem-based learning opens up the greatest opportunities for the use of G..
(Bim-Bad B.M. Pedagogical encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 2002. S. 53)
see also
Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language
Hypothesis
Polish - hipoteza.
German - Hypothesis.
Latin - hypothesis (assumption).
The word "hypothesis" became widespread in the language in the 18th century. in the era of Peter I. The word is a borrowing from Polish or German and goes back to the Latin hypothesis - “assumption”. The primary source is the Greek word hypothesis, formed from the words “under” and “put, put”.
The word "hypothesis" was originally a purely scientific term and is still rarely used in colloquial language.
Related are:
Ukrainian - hypothesis.
Bulgarian is a hypothesis.
Derivative: hypothetical.
Beginnings of Modern Natural Science. Thesaurus
Hypothesis
(from Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption) - a scientific assumption put forward in the form scientific concepts in order to fill in the gaps in empirical knowledge or to link various empirical knowledge into a single whole, or put forward to explain a phenomenon, facts and require experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory. The hypothesis is verified (verified) by the relevant facts of experience, especially by experiment, obtaining the character of truth; it is fruitful as a heuristic or working hypothesis if it can lead to new knowledge and new ways of knowing. The English philosopher Karl Popper wrote: “We should get used to understanding science not as a “body of knowledge”, but as a system of hypotheses, i.e. conjectures and anticipations, which in principle cannot be substantiated, but which we can speak with full confidence, that they are "true", "more or less certain", or further "probable".
Philosophical Dictionary (Comte-Sponville)
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
♦ Hypothesis
A proposition usually put forward for experimental or demonstrative purposes; an idea temporarily accepted as true in order to draw conclusions from it and, in the limiting case, confirm or refute its truth. In the experimental sciences, a hypothesis, in the words of Claude Bernard (***), serves as a "premature explanation", which is subjected to experimental testing in order to find out its reliability. These sciences, long called inductive (since they move from fact to law), would be more correctly called hypothetical-experimental: the hypotheses put forward by them, as Popper emphasizes, are scientific only if they can be subjected to experimental verification and, in the limit case refuted by him (Falsifiability). In mathematics, hypotheses are rather conventions that have meaning not in themselves, but because of the system of consequences that can be deduced from them (theorems): they form an axiomatic that serves as the basis of the hypothetical-deductive system.
Claude Bernard (1813-1878) - French physiologist and pathologist, one of the founders of experimental medicine and endocrinology. Introduced the concept of the internal environment of the body.
Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron
Hypothesis
In the second analytic of Aristotle, apart from truths that do not require proof (axioms), two kinds of provable propositions (θέσις) are distinguished: definition (όρισμός), referring to entities subject, and assumption (ύπόθεσις), referring to his existence. About G. in later scientific usage, see below.
Hypothesis in the sciences of nature (ύπόθεσις - everything put in the basis, assumption, basic position, principle) - an assumption made by us to explain phenomena. We resort to such assumptions when the complexity of the conditions of the phenomenon does not allow direct experimental study, when the causes of the phenomenon are unknown or incomprehensible to us. Then, on the basis of previously acquired knowledge, we make an assumption, deduce from it how the phenomenon should occur under given conditions, and then compare the derived result with the observed course of the phenomenon. Of these three steps: assumptions - hypotheses, inference (deduction) and verification by observation, the largest part of the cases of inductive research consists. We resort to the same method of research in everyday life, often completely unconsciously due to habit, when compiling a representation of objects and phenomena according to some visible signs of them, insufficient for the formation of a clear and distinct representation solely on them. In this case, we make an assumption about the type of the observed object and check how much this type agrees with the observed features. For example, we give the reading of a book in a familiar language, but from a distance that does not allow us to clearly see all the letters. For some of them, we guess (i.e., make an assumption) what these or other words should be and then check how much the visible letters correspond to these words. That this is really the process of reading in this case is confirmed by the difficulty and downright impossibility of reading under the same conditions words printed in the same type but in an unfamiliar language, or reading an arbitrary selection of letters, as is done to determine the distance of vision. Meanwhile, the whole difference between the two cases is only that in the latter case we do not have the opportunity to make an assumption about the meaning of the letters that are not clearly visible to us. We consciously act in a similar way when investigating and explaining natural phenomena: we put forward an assumption about the essence and mode of action of certain causes. Such, for example, are the G. of universal gravitation, in astronomy; G. wave-like motion of the light ether, in physics; G. the atomistic structure of matter, in chemistry; G. of the origin of species of animals and plants, in biology, etc. The dignity of G. is assessed not only by the degree of agreement of the explanations derived from it with observations, but also by the degree of agreement of the very foundations of G. with its contemporary worldview. Non-restriction of the choice of G. to such conditions would make it possible to select the most incredible foundations for the mathematical derivation of results that are in perfect agreement with the observed phenomena. And this agreement, together with the harmony of mathematical deductions, often bribes the scientist and makes him forget the fragility of the very foundations of the conclusions, meanwhile, these conclusions are partly supported only on these unsteady foundations and fall along with them. But until this happens, the development of a true explanation of the phenomenon will be delayed, especially if the creator of the false G. is a first-class authority.
Such, for example, was the now abandoned H. Newton, who explained the phenomena of light by the outflow of special light matter from a luminous body. The authority of Newton attracted many first-class scientists to this gyroscope, and the now generally accepted hysteresis of the undulating motion of the ether had to endure a struggle with it for a long time with unequal forces.
G. - as an assumption, requires confirmation by observation; therefore, one carefully observed fact, which contradicts G., can completely overturn it. So it was with Newton's hysteresis of the outflow of light: its proponents, as it always happens, in every possible way adapted it to explain various light phenomena, much simpler and better explained by the hysteresis of the undulating motion of the ether, until a fact was discovered that directly refuted it. According to G. Newton, the refraction of light rays during their transition from one medium to another was explained more speed beam in a more refractive medium. The measurement of the speed of light in different media, made by Foucault, gave results directly opposite to this and quite consistent with the conclusions of G. undulating motion. On the other hand, the constant confirmation of a graph by observation increases the probability that it is correctly formulated, especially if the graph makes it possible to predict phenomena that have not yet been observed. G. is then raised to the level of a theory of this kind of phenomena. Thus, for example, the predictions of certain phenomena of light diffraction by Fresnel and conical refraction in birefringent crystals by Hamilton, made by them on the basis of Huygens' wave-like motion, significantly reinforced this theory and raised it to the level of a theory of light. The same should be said about Newton's G. of universal gravitation; the constant agreement of the results of the calculation with the observed movements of celestial bodies, the discovery of the planet Neptune, predicted in advance, confirmed the basic law of G. Newton and elevated it to the degree of a theory of the motion of celestial bodies. Only those G., or parts of G., can turn to the theory of the corresponding phenomena, confirmed by observations, which correctly express the mode or law of the action of causes, the quantitative relationship between these actions and this itself provide a basis for new conclusions, explanations and predictions of phenomena. Those G. or parts of them that relate to the essence of the causes of phenomena, inaccessible to observation, cannot count on longevity; they must either lose their meaning or change along with the change in our views on the essence of phenomena, with the development of our knowledge of nature. Let us cite for example the same G. So, the G. of universal gravitation, to explain the motion of celestial bodies, takes their mutual attraction through absolute emptiness, and the attraction of particles of the same body through all its substance, but without the mediation of this substance; the substance is taken as if it were permeable to force. Such power is completely incomprehensible to us; but the law of action of this force, according to G. Newton, expresses the actual course of phenomena. And this is what is important; we observe not forces between celestial bodies, but accelerations of movement from bodies; but these accelerations are such, "as if" between the bodies there was mutual gravitation according to H. Newton; so did Newton himself, in the first edition of his creations. Replacing the words "mutual gravitation of bodies" with the words "acceleration of bodies towards each other", we obtain an actual description of the course of the phenomena under consideration. In exactly the same way, the theory of the undulating motion of the light ether is correct and agrees with observations, as long as it explains light phenomena by periodic movements or changes in some elastic medium - the ether. The observed light phenomena allow us to draw some general conclusions about the properties of this medium: but as soon as we touch on the question of the essence of the ether, we immediately lose solid ground under our feet. The essence of matter remains inaccessible to us. This is also found in the most ancient of physical hypotheses, the hypothesis of the atomistic structure of matter. According to this theory, matter consists of extremely small atoms, which cannot be further divided, and which escape our observations through the most powerful microscopes. This G. arose in ancient greece about 600 BC, almost simultaneously with the opposite gravity, which assumed the continuity and infinite divisibility of matter. Under the influence of physical and mainly chemical. teachings, atomistic geology has gained predominance, and at present represents a coherent theory, which is presented in many treatises as almost undoubted truth, despite the inaccessibility of atoms to direct observation. She explains really well all physical and chemical. phenomena; but as soon as we go beyond the facts accessible to observation, as soon as we start talking about the properties and essence of these atoms, a difference of views is immediately revealed (see Substance). About 25 years ago, among the English physicists (William Thomson), a new modification of the homogeneity of the continuity of matter arose, namely: the heterogeneity of vortex rings in a continuous incompressible world fluid. Vortex rings must violate the equality of hydrostatic pressure in a liquid (according to the law discovered by Helmholtz 35 years ago), and these rings can neither be destroyed nor reappear, but retain the properties inherent in each of them. They must replace the atoms of atomistic gravity, and the pressure difference excited by them in the medium must replace the interatomic forces. G. of molecular vortices, undeveloped at the present time, is inferior in harmony to the atomist. G.; but the possibility of its further development cannot be denied.
But if the G. of molecular vortices ever attained predominance over the atomist. G., then all the same, this latter will not disappear from science without a trace, as useless or incorrect. On the contrary, developed over several centuries under the influence of the development of our knowledge, it contains, in addition to the assumption about the essence of atoms, a lot of factual scientific data on the quantitative relationship between various manifestations of matter. These facts are found with the assistance of the atom. G., but not inextricably linked with the assumption of the essence of matter, constitute an integral scientific acquisition; they will enter entirely into any G., cat. an atomist will ever come to replace him. The situation is different with G., who cannot serve as a support for the conclusions of quantitative relationships between the phenomena being explained. To such G. it is possible to carry, for example, G. of magnetic and electric liquids rejected now. In fact, they did not explain anything, but only expressed in an allegorical form the facts and laws known in their time in the field of magnetic and electrical phenomena: the interaction between electrical or magnetic processes unknown to us was replaced by exactly the same interaction between special liquids. But these G. were significant only as long as they did not go beyond the limits of the phenomena on which their statement is based. They could not serve as a support for the derivation of new phenomena, and therefore, with the change in our views on the essence of electrical phenomena, they have now lost their significance. But in their time, however, they also benefited science: by satisfying the requirement of our mind to explain every phenomenon by corresponding causes, these G. at the same time made it possible to systematize the accumulated stock of observed facts and thereby facilitated their study. Of course, in the study of phenomena, as in all human actions, mistakes are possible - it is possible to hastily set up small G., which do not have sufficient grounds. But there is no great harm from this: verification of conclusions by observation prevents the development of incorrect G. Science cannot do without G.: they constitute the only, and, as the history of the development of science has shown, a powerful tool for the study of phenomena. All our modern knowledge of nature has developed with the assistance of G. To give an outline to all G. means to give an outline to all natural science; to set out the history of their development is to write the history of the development of the science of nature.
Poincaré's hypothesis was very important, but not only that!
The appointment of Lyubov Glebova once again confirmed the popular Lately the hypothesis of the active arrival of Russian women to power.
The difference between a hypothesis and a theory lies only in how they are perceived by the scientific community.
The final blow to the Jeans hypothesis was dealt by the calculations of the Soviet astronomer N. N. Pariyskiy, which fully confirmed Russell's conclusion.
Based on this document, he constructed and published the following hypothesis.
Nevertheless, even today, several original and captivating scientific hypotheses have already been proposed regarding the history of the Qur'an and Islam itself.
But the hypotheses expressed about the decline in internal migration often oversimplify the situation.
Observation- a method of studying objects and phenomena of objective reality in the form in which they exist in nature. An observable is any physical quantity whose value can be found experimentally (measured).
Hypothesis- a probable assumption about the cause of any phenomena, the reliability of which, in the current state of science, cannot be verified and proven.
Experiment- the study of a particular phenomenon under precisely taken into account conditions, when it is possible to monitor the course of a change in a phenomenon, to actively influence it.
Theory- generalization of experience, practice, scientific activity, revealing the main patterns of the process or phenomenon being studied.
An experience- a set of accumulated knowledge.
Mechanics- a science that studies mechanical movements, i.e. moving bodies relative to each other or changing body shapes.
Material point- a physical body, the size and shape of which can be neglected.
translational movement- a movement in which any straight line, rigidly connected with the body, moves parallel to itself.
Instant speed (speed)– characterizes the rate of change of the displacement radius vector r at time t.
Acceleration- characterizes the rate of change of speed at time t.
Tangential acceleration characterizes the change in speed modulo.
Normal acceleration- towards.
Angular velocity is the vector value of the derivative of the elementary angular displacement with respect to time.
Angular acceleration is a vector quantity equal to the first derivative of the angular velocity with respect to time.
Pulse- a vector measure of the amount of mechanical movement that can be transferred from one body to another, provided that the movement does not change its shape.
mechanical system- a set of bodies allocated for consideration.
internal forces are the forces with which the bodies that are part of the system under consideration interact with each other.
Outside forces- act from the side of bodies that do not belong to the system.
System called closed or isolated if there are no external forces
Direct problem of mechanics– knowing the forces, find the motion (functions r(t), V(t)).
Inverse problem of mechanics- knowing the motion of the body, find the forces acting on it.
Mass (additive value):
1. Measure of inertia in the translational motion of the body (inertial mass)
2. A measure of the amount of a substance in the volume of a body
3. Measure of the gravitational properties of bodies participating in gravitational interactions (gravitational mass)
4. Measure of energy
Inertia manifests itself:
1. In the ability of the body to maintain a state of motion
2. In the ability of a body under the influence of other bodies to change the state not in jumps, but continuously.
3. Resist a change in the state of your movement.
reference systems, in relation to which the free b.m. is in a state of relative rest or uniform rectilinear motion, are called inertial(in them, Newton's I law is fulfilled).
INewton's law: If the frame of reference moves relative to the inertial one with acceleration, then it is called non-inertial.
IINewton's law: In the inertial system, the rate of change of momentum b.m. equal to the resulting force acting on it and coincides with it in direction.
IIINewton's law: The forces with which interacting bodies act on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Absolute Speed– b.w. speed with respect to a fixed frame of reference.
Relative speed– b.w. speed relative to the moving frame of reference.
Carrying speed is the speed of the moving frame relative to
component scientific research or experimental work, which contains an assumption about the possible result and the conditions for achieving it.
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HYPOTHESIS
from the Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption), scientifically based assumption or assumption, true value to-rogo indefinitely; form of development of science. G. - one of the methods of scientific. research, knowledge of reality. After studying characteristic features phenomena, circumstances, conditions, etc., one can make an assumption about the essence of a given phenomenon (or classes of phenomena), begin the construction of a G. The course of thought in this case is clothed in the form of a kind of inference. In the construction of G., the conclusion goes from the presence of a consequence (this or that fact or phenomenon) to the presence of a foundation (cause) or from the similarity of consequences or signs to the similarity of grounds. The next step in research. research is to test G. practice. Substantiated and confirmed by experience, G. turns into reliable knowledge, into a theory. For example, put forward by D. I. Mendeleev and then confirmed by numerous. G.'s facts that the properties of chem. elements depend on their atomic weights, pointed out the reason for the difference in the properties of elements, brought these elements into a harmonious system and gave a powerful impetus to the development of chemistry.
In the process of school teaching should explain to students the meaning of G., the conditions for its correct construction and application: G. should be sufficiently substantiated, internally consistent; contradictions between hypotheticals should not be allowed. and established regulations. The learning process must be structured in such a way that, along with other forms of judgment, students also use grammatical patterns; max. opportunities for the use of G. opens up problem-based learning. With the help of a system of questions, to-rye asks the teacher, students learn to put forward G., substantiate it (if necessary) experimentally or with the help of a system of reasoning, and formulate the resulting conclusion. G. are used mainly in teaching subjects of nature. cycle, when, when explaining the topic, holistic problem tasks are introduced or students are given separate tasks. problematic questions. G.'s use promotes development at students logical. thinking, imagination, mastering the elements of creative cognition. activities, makes learning more active and interesting. Lit .: Kopni and P. V., Gnoseology, and logical. fundamentals of science, M., 1974; Formal Logic, L., 1977; Karpovich V.N., Problem, hypothesis, law, Novosib., 1980, p. 57 -120; Didactics cf. schools, ed. M. N. Skatkina, M., 1982, p. 197-207; X a-lilov UM, Nekrye questions of the development of productive thinking of schoolchildren in the solution of the account. math. problems, in the book: Ways of formation of creativity. thinking of schoolchildren, Ufa, 1983, p. 74-77. A. N. Zhdan.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
