The syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech, pronounced in one articulation.
Speech sounds are created by air vibrations and the work of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. perceived by ear. However, one cannot limit oneself to these two aspects when characterizing speech sounds; linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform social function, i.e. function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with the distinction between the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore, in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century. linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new department of linguistics appeared - phonology.
The sound composition of the Russian language
All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.
Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory features: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [p], a gap between the tongue and the hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated according to the method and place of formation, for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) during the formation of vowels, the organs of speech are tense evenly, while the formation of consonants, the organs of speech are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream when pronouncing vowels is weak, and when pronouncing consonants it is strong, since it needs to overcome the obstacle existing in its path; 6) all vowels can be syllabic, consonants (except sonorants) cannot form a syllable on their own.
In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech sounds, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which are partly close to consonants (formation with the help of a barrier, differentiation according to the method and place of formation, the presence of noise), and partly to vowels (the predominance of tone, the ability to form a syllable) .
There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in Russian: [i], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory features: the degree of elevation of the tongue, the row, the participation of the lips.
There are 37 consonant sounds (phonemes) in modern Russian. Their formation and classification are much more complicated than vowels.
Intonation
Each phrase is articulated intonation.
Intonation- this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional sides and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melodics - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech tempo (acceleration and slowing down in the flow of speech), the strength of the sound (intensity of speech), intra-phrase pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the general timbre of the statement, which, depending on the target setting, can be “funny”, “playful”, “scared”, "gloomy", etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only forms phrases, sentences and various syntactic constructions, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and the will of people. In fact, the same segment of a sounding speech, depending on how, with what intonation it is pronounced, can have different meaning: He came. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of a phrase, at an indent; the interrogative phrase is characterized by a sharp rise in the indent; the intonation of the exclamatory phrase is even high.
It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. Apart from the dot, colon, dash, comma, brackets, exclamation mark, question mark, and ellipsis, we have no way of conveying the character of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs, it is far from always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For instance:
Who does not know that he was the first to express this idea? - there is a question mark at the end of the sentence, but the phrase has an affirmative, not an interrogative meaning.
Intonation also performs another important function - with its help, a sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagmas.
Variety of sounds and their difference
There are many sounds in every language. Moreover, in different languages their number is different, as well as the ratio between vowels and consonants.
Each sound has its own acoustic features, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying more and more attention, since they believe that the acoustic classification is a true linguistic classification, concerned with finding out what a sound is, while the articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at understanding how sound is produced.
Sounds differ from one another in pitch, longitude, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different indicators pitch, strength and timbre, are acoustically different. In addition, there are differences between sounds, explained by subjective and objective moments. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the peculiarities of the pronunciation of individual people. Each person pronounces sounds to some extent in his own way. For linguistics, only such differences between sounds are important that make changes in the meanings of words. If two people (for example, a student and a professor) uttered the word student, then we notice that this word was uttered by them differently, but at the same time we assert that they uttered the same word. But if the same person utters two words, for example, a garden and a court, then we will find out without the slightest difficulty that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y], which distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.
Thus, individual differences in the pronunciation of the same sound are not linguistically important. Conversely, different sounds are linguistically important as units of a language system, regardless of the different pronunciation of them by individual people.
2.
When we say the word town[gort], in the stressed syllable, in place of the sound [o], a very obscure sound sounds, as it happens reduction(from the Latin reducere - to return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of those phonetic conditions in which the sound turned out to be(unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses part of its sonority, but also loses its quality - it turns into a sound [b]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants in the position of the end of the word are deafened). get stunned or speak out loud consonants can also be in the middle of a word under the influence of the subsequent deaf or voiced consonant: oak - oak [dupka], ask - request [proz" ba]. These phenomena indicate that under certain phonetic conditions (voiced before the deaf, deaf before the voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) it is possible that one sound affects another and their changes or other sound processes.Such differences between sounds are usually called phonetically determined. They also do not have a linguistically significant meaning, since the word and its meaning do not change.
3.
In words WHO and university after the consonant [v], we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve distinguishers their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both act in the same position (stressed - strong for vowels), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds here. Differences between sounds that are not due to either the individual characteristics of pronunciation, or the position of the sound, or the influence of one sound on another, are called functional. Functional differences between sounds are of linguistic importance.
Consequently, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.
onetic transcription
To record sounding speech, a special system of signs is used - phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription is based on the principle of a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.
The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Sounding speech is recorded without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.
In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z’imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [v_dom].
In Russian phonetic transcription, letters of the Russian alphabet are mainly used. Recording of consonants is carried out using all the corresponding letters, except for u and y. Special superscript or subscript icons can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some features of the sound:
[n '] - soft consonant ([n '] yobo palate);
[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be denoted by an accent or [n:].
The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound that is conveyed by the sign [w ':]: y [w ':] élie, [w ':] etina. A voiced parallel to [w ':] will be the sound [zh ':], speaking, for example, in the word dró [zh ':] and yeast (other pronunciation is also allowed - dró [zh:] and).
The Latin letter [j] denotes in transcription the consonant “yot”, which sounds in the words block apple, water reservoir, sparrows [b'ji´] sparrows, language language, sará [j] barn, má [j] ka shirt, chá [ j] nickname teapot, etc. Please note that the consonant "yot" is not always transmitted in writing with the letter y.
Vowel sounds are recorded using different kind signs.
Stressed vowels are transcribed using six characters: [i] - [p'ir] fir, [s] - [ardor] ardor, [y] - [beam] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on the place in relation to stress, on the neighborhood of hard or soft consonants, on the type of syllable. To record unstressed vowels, the symbols [y], [i], [s], [a], [b], [b] are used.
Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In its quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: m[u]zykálny, r[u]ká, water[u], [u]dar.
Unstressed vowels [and], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed syllable (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed one): [r'i] dov rows, mod [s] lér fashion designer, d [a] ská board . The same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear at the absolute beginning of the word: [and] excursionist excursionist, [a] to search.
Unstressed [and], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding percussive sounds, but not identical to them. So, unstressed [and] turns out to be a vowel, middle between [and] and [e], but closer to [and]: [l'i] sá fox - cf .: [l'i´] fox himself. The pronunciation of the other vowels is also different. The use of the symbols [i], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of conventionality.
So, the unstressed vowels listed above are typical for the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [b] and [b] are pronounced.
The sign [ъ] (“ep”) conveys a very short sound, in its quality it is average between [s] and [a]. The vowel [ъ] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed and in stressed syllables after solid ones: p [b] rohod steamboat, in [b] water carrier, back [b] l set, city [b] city.
In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that resembles [and], but is shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [b] (“er”): [m'b] ditch world, [m'b] catchy chalky, za [m'b] r froze, za [l'l] zhi deposits.
Organs of speech. Formation of vowels and consonants
Sounds are made during exhalation. The flow of exhaled air is necessary condition sound formation.The jet of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close together, then the exhaled air will cause them to oscillate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, a tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.
The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming the obstacle created in the oral cavity on the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the organs of speech to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [c], [h], [w]) or a complete closure ([p], [m], [d], [k]).
Various organs can be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [c]), certain parts of the tongue with hard and soft palate ([h], [d ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in the creation of the barrier are divided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements.
The air jet overcomes the gap or bow, resulting in a specific noise. The latter is an obligatory component of the consonant sound. In the voiced, the noise is combined with the tone; in the deaf, it turns out to be the only component of the sound.
When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords vibrate, and a free, unhindered passage through the oral cavity is provided for the air stream. Therefore, the vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and total absence noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.
The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the characteristics of sounds corresponding to them are called articulation characteristics.
sweet sounds
Stressed vowels: classification features
The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the work of the organs of speech: 1) the movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);
2) the movement of the tongue up - down (rise);
3) the position of the lips (labialization).
On the basis of the number of vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating front vowels ([i], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the oral cavity. When articulating back vowels ([y], [o]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position.
The lift sign describes the position of the tongue as it moves up or down. High vowels ([i], [s], [y]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Vowels of the middle rise ([e], [o]) are given a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because when they are pronounced, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The remaining vowels are pronounced with a neutral lip style and are non-labialized: [i], [s], [e], [a].
The table of stressed vowels is as follows:
rise:
upper and´ ы´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial)
lower a
Unstressed vowels: classification features
In unstressed syllables, sounds other than those under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the organs of speech. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in Russian are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed vowels (cf.: s[a]dy´ gardens´ - s[á]dik sadik, p[i]lá pilá - n[i´]lit púlit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration changes, but also the very quality of the vowels. In this regard, they speak of a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. Paired with [b] argument gardener - with [á] dik unstressed garden [b] is not just shorter - it differs from stressed [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed, the language does not reach the extreme points of advancement and tends to take a more neutral position.
The most "convenient" in this regard is the sound [b]. This is a vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized: with [b] an airplane flies, b [b] a furrow.
The articulation of all unstressed vowels shifts towards the “central” [b]. When pronouncing unstressed [s], [u], [y], [a], the force of change is not very significant: cf. r [s] bak fisherman - r [s'] ba fish, [s'i] net blue - [s' and'] niy, r [y] ká ruk - r [ý] ki ruki, l [ a] skát caress - l[á] skovy affectionate .. Unstressed [s], [i], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as the drums, slightly shifting them to the center.
Unstressed [b] ([s’b] neva blue) should take an intermediate position between unstressed [and] and “central” [b].
The sound "er" is characterized as a front-mid vowel, upper-mid rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [b] and [b] stand out for their brevity. The rest of the vowels are more pronounced.
The vowel table, supplemented by unstressed sounds, takes the following form:
row: front middle rear
rise:
upper i´ s´ y (labial.) y
and y
b
average
e´ b ó (labial)
lower a
á
Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)
Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depend on a number of conditions:1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,
2) positions at the absolute beginning of a word,
3) hardness / softness of the preceding consonant.
The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of reduction of vowels. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not by their order in the word, but by the place occupied relative to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into pre-stressed and stressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, four vowels are possible - unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]: n [u] waiting need, [ch'i] s s'clock, w[s] lka silk, n [a]chnoy night.
In the remaining unstressed syllables (second, third pre-stressed and stressed), strongly reduced vowels [b], [b], as well as the sound [y] are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d [b] movy smoke and brownie, [m's] meat grinder, [ch'u] do-work miraculous.
In stressed syllables: swamp [b] m swamp and swamps, gentle [b] d gentle and tender, blue [n'b] m blue and blue, pó [l's] m field, horse by horse.
In stressed syllables, at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [b], [b] and [y], the vowel [s] is fixed, only a very short one: note [s] note, note [b] note, no [t'b] note , note[y] note.
The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the features of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [y], [and], [a] are pronounced, regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [u] take away, [and] exporter exporter, [a] say stipulate.
Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.
In stressed syllable: drums [ý], [i´], [s´], [e´], [ó], [á]In the 1st prestressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of a word: unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]
In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,in stressed syllables: unstressed [b], [b], [y] + [s](in the abs. end of the word)
The hardness / softness of the preceding consonant is an important factor in determining the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:
1) after hard can act[y], [s], [a], [b]: [lu] meadow meadow, [ly] net to go bald, [la] réts casket, [l] horses' horses;
2) after soft are pronounced[y], [and], [b]: [l'u] to be afraid to admire, [ch'i] to turn black, [l'l] doryub ice ax;
3) pre-shock[a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [r'i] dy' rows, [n'i] ti' five, [r'b] second private, [n'b] five-year-old tablet;
4) [b] after soft appears only in reflexive -sya, in endings and formative suffixes. Such pronunciation is possible, but not mandatory, and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc.:
received i´l [s'b] turned out - at the babý [s'b] at the grandmother;
drop [l'b] drop - drop [l'b] drop;
bear [d'b] m bears - bear [d'b] m bear;
landing in y´sa [d’b] - landing in y´sa [d’b] s.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Unions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They allow, for example, the following pronunciation of non-high vowels: slept, n[o] not for long, b[o]á, andánt[e].kt
It is easy to see that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires an obligatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech measures in a phrase. Thus, a speech tact is a part of a phrase, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases.
The speech tact, as well as the phrase, is directly related to the expression of content in the language. Depending on where one speech measure ends and the next begins, the whole meaning of the phrase sometimes changes: How he was struck // by the words of his brother. — How struck by his words // brother. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.
As a rule, the phrase consists of several speech measures: In the hour of trials // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at the feet (D. Kedrin). The measure can coincide with a single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech tact.
onetic vowel alternations. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing
A vowel belonging to a certain morpheme can be stressed in some words, unstressed in others. So, unstressed [and] in the word [d’o] cheap cheap corresponds to the stressed labialized [ó], which sounds in the same root in the word [d’o] cheap cheap.Sounds belonging to the same morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form a phonetic alternation. In the example above, the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and] is fixed.
In Russian, the following are possible alternation of percussion and unstressed sounds:
1. [ý] // [y] z[ý] would, z[u]bnoy: teeth, dental.
2. [i´] // [and] // [b] [p’i´] shet, [p’i] sat, [n’b] sani´na: writes, writes, scribbling.
3. [y´] // [s] // [b] w[y´] re, w[s] rok, w[b] rok: wider, wide, wide.
4. [and´] // [s´] // [and] // [s] [and´] games, with [s´] grand, [and] play, with [s] play: games, played, play, play.
5. [e´] // [s] // [b] sh [e] st, sh [s] stá, sh [b] stovoy: pole, pole, pole.
6. [e´] // [and] // [b] [p’e´] shiy, [p’i] shkóm, [p’b] shekhod: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.
7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d[ó] mik, d[a] home, d[b] mov: house, home, brownie.
8. [ó] // [and] // [b] [p'ó] strobe, [p'i] str and´t, [n'b] strotá: colorful, variegated, variegated.
9. [ó] // [s] // [b] sh[ó] lka, sh[s] lká, sh [b] lkov i´ty: silk, silk, silky.
10. [á] // [a] // [b] tr[á] vka, tr[a] vá, tr[b] wiry: grass, grass, herbal.
11. [á] // [and] // [b] [n’á]th, [n’i] so, [n’b] wheelbarrow: fifth, nickel, piglet.
Please note that the quality of unstressed sound is not indicated on the letter. The fact that a vowel is unstressed is a signal orthograms. In the roots of the words on foot, dazzle, nickel, pronounced with unstressed [and], the letter is not written. When choosing correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of pronouncing the root: [p’e´] shy, [p’ó] stro, [p’á] ty.
Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). The morpheme receives such a graphical representation, in which. positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the strong variant (the vowel is checked by stress, the consonant is placed before the vowel).
The spelling of unstressed vowels that are not checked by stress falls under another spelling principle - the traditional one. In dictionary words with [a] báka, p ['i] chál, r ['i] b i´na, it is customary to write the letters o, e, i, in examples like mind [' and] rlá / mind [' and] rála - letters e and i. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which in all reference books are given under the heading "Alternating vowels in the root." It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.
It is extremely rare for unstressed vowels to be written in accordance with the phonetic principle of orthography. The prefix ras-/raz-/ros-/ros- has four graphic variants, correlated with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the test situation: r[a] confuse unravel, r[a] destroy destroy, r[ó] write down painting in the presence of r[ó] rally rally (it is the last option that would be a test one, because it has a vowel is under stress, and the consonant is before the vowel).
vowels
Consonant sounds: classification features.
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noisiness / sonority),
2) participation or non-participation of the voice (sonority / deafness),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of formation,
5) the way of education.
Particularly stipulated are the properties of pairing in deafness / sonority and pairing in hardness / softness.
Noisy and sonorous, deaf and voiced consonants
Noisy and sonorous consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.
Sonorants in Russian include nine sounds: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’], [j]. As with all consonants, a barrier is created during the articulation of sonorants in the oral cavity. However, the force of friction of the air jet against the contiguous / closed organs of speech is minimal: the air jet finds a relatively free exit to the outside and no noise is generated. Air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and cheeks ([l], [l ']). The absence of noise can be associated with the instantaneous nature of the barrier ([p], [p']) or with the rather wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is created and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.
In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [c], [g], [e], [g], [h], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of overcoming an obstacle with an air stream. The tonal component of the sound is non-basic and may either be completely absent (for deaf consonants) or supplement the main one (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of tone (voice) in the formation of a consonant sound.
Tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced, their articulation implies the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Voiced, therefore, are all sonorants: [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '], [j]. Among the noisy consonants, the voiced sounds include the following sounds: [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [ f:'], [h], [h'].
[b] - [n] [b '] - [n '] [s] - [s] [s '] - [s ']
[c] - [f] [c '] - [f '] [g] - [w] [w: '] - [w: ']
[d] - [t] [d '] - [t '] [g] - [k] [g '] - [k ']
The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced pairs or deaf pairs. The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. All sonorants are referred to voiced unpaired, sounds [c], [h '], [x], [x '] are deaf unpaired.
onetic alternations of consonants according to deafness / voicedness. Designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing
The deafness / voicedness of consonants remains an independent, independent sign in the following provisions:1) before vowels: [su]d court - [zu]d itching, [ta]m there - [da]m ladies;
2) in front of sonorants: [layer] th layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl '] I aphid - [dl '] I for;
3) before [in], [in ']: [verify '] check check - [beast '] beast beast.
In these positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish between words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness / sonority.
In other cases, the appearance of a dull / voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness / sonority turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this happens are considered weak on the basis of the specified attribute.
The Russian language has a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants according to deafness / voicedness is fixed: [b] // [p] and [h '] // [s '].
In addition, positional changes relate to situations where the voiceless and voiced consonants are close. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf. ready [in ']it is preparing - ready [f't'] do not cook (i.e. [in '] // [f '] in front of the deaf).
Deaf consonants facing voiced noisy ones (except [c], [c ']) change to voiced ones, there is an assimilation by voicedness, cf. [t '] // [d '] before the voiced one), ask [s '] and´t to ask - ask for [s'b] a request (i.e. [s '] // [s '] before the voiced) .
Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio ‘similarity’). Thus, assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicedness was described above.
The designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / sonority is indicated on the letter. Sound signs that turn out to be “forced”, positionally conditioned, are not indicated in the letter. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written with one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling operates: in the word du [p] oak, the letter b is written, as in the test du [b] a of oak.
The exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription [p]tion transcription if available transcription [b '] to transcribe) and prefixes on s / s (and [s] use use if available and [s] learn to study). The graphic appearance of such examples falls under the phonetic principle of orthography. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work to the end, combined with the traditional one: ra[w:] move = ra[w] move stir up.
The traditional principle of spelling is subject to the choice of a letter in dictionary words such as v[g] hall station, and [z] best asbestos. Their spelling does not depend on verification (it is impossible), nor on pronunciation.
hard and soft consonants
Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.When pronouncing soft consonants ([b '], [c '], [d '], [h '], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstruction.
When pronouncing solid consonants ([b], [c], [d], [h], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.
Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in hardness / softness. All of them are either hard pairs or soft pairs:
[b] - [b '] [n] - [n '] [m] - [m ']
[in] - [in '] [f] - [f '] [n] - [n ']
[g] - [g '] [k] - [k '] [p] - [p ']
[d] - [d '] [t] - [t '] [l] - [l ']
[s] - [s '] [s] - [s '] [x] - [x ']
The hard unpaired ones include the consonants [c], [w], [g], and the soft unpaired ones include the consonants [h '], [w: '], [g: '] and [j].
The consonants [w] and [w: ’], [g] and [g: ’] do not form pairs, as they differ in two features at once: hardness / softness and brevity / longitude.
It should be noted that the sound [zh: '] is rare. It is possible only in a limited circle of words: I drive, reins, yeast, splashes, later and some others. At the same time, [zh: '] is increasingly being replaced by [zh:].
A very special position among soft consonants is occupied by the sound [j]. In the rest of the soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, an additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the indicated articulation as the main one, because there are no other barriers when pronouncing [j]. Therefore, the sound [j] is in principle not capable of having a solid pair.
onetic alternations of consonants in hardness/softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b
The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions:1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to hatch, [but] with nose - [n'o] s carried, past [t e´] pastel - pos [t 'e´]l bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be perceived as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in commonly used words.
2) at the end of the word: ko [n] kon - ko [n '] horse, zha [r] heat - zha [r '] heat;
3) for sounds [l], [l ’], regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l ’] ná free;
4) for consonants [c], [s '], [s], [s '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [n '], [ p], [p'] (for front-lingual)
- in the position before [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] (before back-lingual): gó [r] ka hill - gó [r '] ko bitterly, bá [n] ka banka - bá [n '] ka banka;
- in a position before [b], [b '], [p], [n '], [m], [m '] (before the lips): and [z] bá hut - re [z '] bá carving;
In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.
Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], cf. cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before solid). A pair of June [n’] June - June’s [n’s] cue June does not follow this pattern. But this exception is the only one.
Assimilation by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not respected by all speakers. Only the replacement [n] with [n '] before [h '] and [w: '] knows no deviations, cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n "h '] ik drum, gó [n] ok races - gó[n' w:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft).
In accordance with the old norms, it was necessary to say: l ´ [m’k ’] and straps, [v’b ’] to drive in; [d’v ’] er the door; [with'j] eat eat; [s’t’] ená wall. In modern pronunciation, there is no mandatory softening of the first sound in these cases. So, the word la´ [mk ’] and straps (similarly trya´ [pk ’] and rags, lá [fk ’] and benches) is pronounced only with a solid, other sound combinations allow pronunciation variability.
The designation in writing applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined, hardness / softness of paired consonants. At the literal level, the soft sound quality [n '] in the words drum and racer is not graphically fixed.
Unlike deafness / sonority, independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - by the letters i, e, u, i: face, ice, hatch, clang;
In modern language, the letter e has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ... those ... cannot be read if you do not see what word it belongs to - dough or test.
2) at the end of a word with a letter soft sign: horse, fire, dust;
3) in the middle of a word before a consonant letter, a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.
The independent hardness of paired consonants is transmitted by such means:
Letters s, o, y, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;
At the end of the word, the absence of a soft sign: con_, heat_, puff_l;
In the middle of a word before a consonant there is no soft sign:
t_ min, s_ looks, bank_ ka.
The hardness / softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling i / s, ё / o, yu / y, ya / a after the letters w, w, h, u, c, corresponding to unpaired letters, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use / disuse of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, married _, silence, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.
Please note that the name of the letters b and b turns out to be insidious. The letter "hard sign" never denotes hardness, its use is associated with a separating function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the next vowel sound: st will eat, and [d'ju] tant adjutant.
The functions of the letter "soft sign" are wider. Firstly, it can also be used in the separating function, but not after prefixes: [vjý]ga blizzard, bu[l'jó]n broth. In this case, the letter b does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, a soft sign can traditionally be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). Again, the letter ь does not convey the softness of sounds in this use. And finally, in a number of situations, the letter b denotes the softness of consonants in writing. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).
place and method of forming consonants
The place of formation of a consonant sound is a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle. This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (fixed) organs. So, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labial-labial ([p], [p '], [b], [b '], [m], [m ']) and labial-dental ([ f], [f'], [v], [v']). Consonants formed with the active participation of the language are divided into front-lingual dental ([s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [ c], [l], [l '], [n], [n ']), anterior lingual anterior palatals ([w], [w '], [g], [g '], [h '], [r ], [p ']), medial lingual palatals ([j]), posterior lingual palatals ([k '], [g '], [x ']) and posterior lingual posterior palatals ([k], [g], [x]) . All listed groups of sounds are reflected in the table of consonants (see below).
Considering the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own organs of speech will help you understand why each sound is placed in a particular cell.
The method of forming a consonant is a characteristic that simultaneously indicates the type of barrier in the oral cavity and the way to overcome it.
There are two main ways to form an obstruction - either the complete closure of the speech organs, or their convergence to the distance of the gap. Thus, stop and fricative consonants are distinguished.
When articulating slotted air, a stream of exhaled air exits in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction on the contiguous organs of speech: h'], [w], [w¯'], [g], [g¯'], [j], [x], [x'].
The pronunciation of stop consonants includes the moment of complete closure of the organs of speech, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bond may be different, depending on what further division into classes is carried out.
Stopping plosives involve removing the barrier with a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out: [p], [p '], [b], [b '], [t], [t '], [d], [d' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'].
In stop affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not sharply open, but only slightly open, forming a gap for air to escape: [ts], [h '].
Closing nasals do not require breaking the bow at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely exits through the nasal cavity: [m], [m '], [n], [n '].
When the occlusive lateral [l] and [l ’] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the barrier, bypassing it along its own trajectory - between the lowered side of the tongue and the cheeks.
In some teaching aids, nasal and lateral sounds are described as stop-passing.
Stop trembling are characterized by periodic closing and opening of the organs of speech, that is, their vibration: [p], [p '].
Sometimes trembling is considered not as a variety of stops, but as a separate, third type of consonants along with stops and fricatives.
Phonetic alternations of consonants in place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound
The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.Before anterior palatine noisy teeth are replaced by anterior palatals. There is a positional similarity at the place of formation: [with] a game with a game - [sh sh] slaughter with a fur coat (i.e. [s] // [sh] in front of the anterior palatine), [with] a game with a game - [sh: 'h' ]championship with a championship (i.e. [s] // [w:'] before the anterior palate).
Explosive consonants before fricatives and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with closer articulatory sounds. Assimilation is carried out according to the method of formation: o [t] play to win back - o [cs] to fall asleep (i.e. [t] // [c] in front of the slot).
In many cases, several signs of consonants undergo a positional change at once. So, in the above example with the championship, the assimilation touched not only the sign of the place of formation, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of [d] playing under the game - according to [h' w: '] some under the cheek ([d] // [h '] in front of the deaf, soft, prepalatine, slit [w: ']) there was an assimilation for all four signs - deafness, softness, place and method of formation.
In the examples le [g] ok is light - light [x'k '] y light, soft´[g] ok is soft - me´[h'k'] y soft, where [g] alternates with [x'], and not with [k'] before [k'], there is a dissimilarity (dissimilation) of sounds according to the method of formation. At the same time, dissimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with likeness (assimilation) in deafness and softness.
In addition to the phenomena described above, in Russian speech, phonetic alternation of consonants with zero sound can be recorded.
Usually [t] / [t '] and [d] / [d '] are not pronounced between dental, between [p] and [h '], between [p] and [c], it also does not sound [l] before [ nc]. So, the loss of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:
Stl: happy [th’]e happiness - happy happy, i.e. [T'] // ;
Stn: place [t] about places - local local, i.e. [T] // ;
Zdn: uéz[d]a uyezd - uézny uézdny, i.e. [d] //;
Zdts: uz [d]á bridle - under the bridles´ under the bridles, i.e. [d] //; gollán [d'] Dutch Dutch - Dutch Dutch, i.e. [d'] // ;
Rdts: ser[d’]echko heart - heart heart, i.e. [d'] // ;
Rdch: ser [d ’] echko heart - serchishko heart, i.e. [d'] // ;
Lnts: só [l] little sun little sun - sun sun, i.e. [l] // .
Akin to the specified phenomenon and the loss of [j]. It occurs when an iota is preceded by a vowel, and then followed by [and] or [b]: mo mine - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] // .
Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the assimilation of consonants in place / method of formation or with the fact of their replacement by zero sound is indicated in the letter. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian orthography, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the check. Example [w] with a fur coat is written as with a fur coat, because have [with] play with play. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically restored on the basis of the test happy [th’]e happiness, etc.
Syllable
A syllable may consist of one or more sounds. In each syllable, only one syllabic sound is distinguished, constituting the core, the top of the syllable. Other sounds adjoin it - non-syllable.The types of syllables are characterized by initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:
1) covered - starting with a non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,
2) naked - starting with a syllabic sound: [á-ist] stork.
According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllable: [bal-kon] balcony;
2) open - ending in a syllabic sound: [vá-z] vase.
In modern linguistics, there are several definitions of a syllable. The definition of a syllable as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) is widespread - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The syllabic sound is considered the most sonorous, it represents the top of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is built according to the law of ascending sonority.
This law predetermines the following features of syllable division.
1. Non-finite syllables strive for openness. Most open syllables: [na-ý-k] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] late.
2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:
1) at the end of the word: [pla-tók] kerchief, [rash:’ót] calculation;
2) at the junction of sonorous and noisy in a non-initial syllable. Sonorant departs to the previous syllable, noisy - to the next: [zam-sh] suede, [bal-kon] balcony;
3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant goes to the next one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.
When learning to divide words into syllables, one should remember that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, significant primarily within the framework of a specific theory.
In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of hyphenation in writing.
Compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic articulation Word hyphenation
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-glá-sn] co-voice-n-a co-voice-on / sog-la-sleep
The norm determines which sounds are included in a given word. Violation of the norm in this case looks like replacing one sound with another.
Change of hard and soft consonants
Most often, the norms for the use of hard and soft consonants are violated before the vowel sound [e]. Originally in Russian, only soft consonants were pronounced before this vowel. But the appearance of borrowed words, and in the twentieth century of abbreviations, led to the fact that solid consonants began to be pronounced before [e]: mayor, peer, sir, thermal power plant, hydroelectric power station.
There would be no violation of the norm if the strict use of the letter E after paired soft consonants (measure) and the letter E after paired hard ones (mayor) was fixed in our orthography. However, this did not happen. In borrowed words, as a rule, the letter E is used: thesis, stand, technique. Therefore, you just have to remember that in some cases this letter denotes the vowel [e] and the softness of the preceding consonant - [t'e] technique, and in others - only the vowel [e] - [stent].
And again it would be possible to strain and memorize the pronunciation of these words, but the trouble is - the language continues to have a tendency to soften paired consonants before [e]: more than once it sounded on the radio [g'es] - hydroelectric power station, what can we say about [t ' empy] and [t'ermesy].
As a result, the pronunciation rate of individual words fluctuates. For example, the pronunciation [se] ssiya today coexists with the variant [s'e] ssiya, and a few years ago the obligatory soft prog [r'e] ss today is already adjacent to the hard prog [re] ss.
Thus, there is a fluctuation in the norm. And where there are such fluctuations, violations also arise when what should be pronounced firmly is softened, and, on the contrary, what should be softened is firmly pronounced:
The task is not to lose the accumulated [t'e] mps. - Norm: [te] mpy;
This is not quite the correct [te]sis. - Norm: [te]sis;
This ironic [d't'ie']ktiv reflected the phantasmagoria of our life. - Norma: [dete] active.
Since the softening of consonants before the sound Ge] is a trend of the modern language, such pronunciation seems acceptable and in some cases does not cause an immediate negative reaction. It seems that no one today will vigorously protest against [t'e]mpa or [t'e]rmos, although the pronunciation of [t'est] instead of [test] or computer[t't]r instead of computer[tаr] is still still perceived as unusual. But, we repeat, our condescension is due precisely to the fact that many of these words are destined for the normative soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e].
The opposite is quite another matter:
The windows are boarded up with fa [ne] swarm; This is a very competent leader; Aromas treat many non-arcs and taste [ne] with other methods give good results (in the latter case, the norm: ailments "gi, taste" [p'b]).
This pronunciation looks mannered, so “cultural-cultural”. It is called hypercorrect, while the speakers “do not know where the boundaries of regularity are, and overdo it in adherence to it” [Panov 1990: 18]. At the same time, as has already been seen in the case of prog [r'e] ss - prog [re] ss, a solid pronunciation can be fixed by the norm. For example, dictionaries now allow the pronunciation fl[ne]l, although previously only soft fl[n'e]l was approved. But the pronunciation shi[ne]l is still undesirable.
These vagaries of living language make this phenomenon difficult, so the only thing left for the "language service" in the editorial office is to monitor live broadcasts and dictionaries and fix stable and fluctuating norms so that it can make recommendations to journalists and make corrections to edited materials.
All other cases of non-normative exchange of hard and soft consonants are much less common, and most importantly, they represent a much more gross violation of the norm than the phenomenon considered.
Under the influence of the analogy with the forms “jump”, “recover”, the pronunciation “charge” arises (norm: charge): They are engaged in employment, but without paying for this service (another mistake in this statement, which can be corrected as follows: “payment for a service ” or “fee for services”, here the latter is better).
Under the influence of writing or as a result of dialectal influence, softness [t ’] is transmitted in the infinitive of reflexive verbs: Patients can contact [t ’] by this phone. Compare also the strange contaminated form: I think Golovanov ud [s't's'] to defend this law (contamination occurred, that is, a mixture of two forms: the future tense “success” and the infinitive “succeed”, in which [t '] is pronounced gently for the reasons above).
In one of the broadcasts of the Sverdlovsk regional radio, both the journalist and his hero said this: In the store [r'e] plugs, salt, matches. It is clear that a soft consonant [p '] was pronounced, and after it, instead of [o], the sound [e] naturally appears. We are considering this case, firstly, because two people say so, and secondly, because the author has heard the word “rezetochka” (type of dishes, socket) in the Ural dialect speech since childhood, so we are not dealing with individual defect, but with the influence of local pronunciation.
Change of voiceless and voiced consonants
Rarely, but there is a non-normative change of deaf and voiced consonants: It is not political dividends that force the director to make such a statement (apparently, the analogy with forms such as “compliments”, “subscriptions” influences).
Other consonant changes
Very often, the pronunciation of the verbs “to facilitate”, “soften” is observed not with the combination [hch], as required by the norm (from “light”, “soft”, where [hk] is pronounced), but with the combination [kch], apparently under the influence letters: This director does not think about making life easier for the viewer.
From time to time, the pronunciation of the pronoun “something” with the combination [pcs] is recorded: Entrepreneurs are driven by nothing [pcs] about something else. The speaker in this case puts this pronoun in the row “what”, “nothing”, in which, according to the norm, it is necessary to pronounce [pcs] (but: not [th] about).
The change of consonants is sometimes observed in the word "post office": The Communists, as usual, will go to the square from the post office. - The final consonant changes as a result of assimilation: it is likened to the previous one in the place of formation (instead of the combination “labial + dental”, the combination “labial + labial” appears).
Change of vowels under stress
The sound composition of a word can also be disturbed due to the exchange of vowels. Under stress, the sounds [e] and [o] are often incorrectly used after paired soft and after hissing consonants. The pronunciation of "scam", "guardianship", "one's own", "no one's", instead of "scam", "guardianship", "one's own", "no one's" is well known.
Starting from the XII century. and until about the XV-XVI centuries. in Russian, the phonetic law of the transition of the sound [e] into the sound [o] under stress after a soft consonant before a hard consonant worked: [n'es] -> [n'os]. In some cases there was no transition. If the sound [e] developed at the place of the sound, we will denote it conditionally, “yat”, we still pronounce [e] under stress after a soft consonant before a hard one: forest, bread, chalk, no, white, light, business, etc. There was also no transition if the word was borrowed from the Old Slavonic language or if the pronunciation of the word was influenced by the Church Slavonic language: captivity, hope, clothing, before, cross, sky, finger, etc. [See: Ivanov 1964: 189-197].
As you can see, it has long happened in the language that in the same position in some words the sound [e] was pronounced, and in others - [o]: “bread”, but “honey”, “chalk”, but “chalk” , "sky", but "sky". The situation became even more confusing when borrowings appeared in Russian, in which in the same position it was necessary to choose [e] or [o] in accordance with the source language: a[f’e]ra from French. affaige “case” [affe "r]; ma [n'o] vr from French manœvre [manovr]; grena [d'e] r from French grenadier [granadier"]; o[p'e]ka from Polish. orieka [opera "ka].
In modern Russian, there are no internal grounds for distinguishing in which word it is necessary to pronounce [o] in a given position, and in which [e]. Only tradition, language skills, dictionary indications. And only in such circumstances. in the center of the field of these words, the norm is strictly observed. Indeed, no one says: “bring me a piece of chalk or bread”, “buy a jar [m'e]da”. But fluctuations occur constantly at the periphery of the group, especially since a number of factors contribute to this.
Firstly, we have not adopted the consistent use of the letter Y. If we always read and always wrote “maneuvers”, “whitish”, “faded”, “bile” and next to “guardianship”, “scam”, “grenadier”, we would be consistent in pronunciation.
Secondly, the change of these sounds in most cases does not affect the semantic distinction. Whether we say "maneuver" or "maneuver", "guardianship" or "guardianship", our interlocutor will understand the statement without any difficulty. At one time, the film "Scam" was shown on the screens. All over Yekaterinburg there were posters on which “Scam” was written in huge letters. It's safe to say that not a single person has decided that this is anything other than a good old "scam".
Thirdly, word formation and inflection constantly collide these sounds in a given position and create traps for our memory: we need to say “dead”, but “dead”, “procession”, but “godfather”, “godmother”. In the declension of pronouns, the influence of the hard variant of the declension on the soft variant has long existed and exists in dialects now, therefore the pronunciation of “all”, “your”, “whose” (as “that”, “which one) is quite in the spirit of the language [See: Ivanov 1964 : 335-336].
With all that said, one might wonder: why break spears? If this phenomenon has almost no effect on semantic differentiation, if some normatively fixed cases even contradict the linguistic trend, then is it worth worrying, let everyone speak as he wants? But this “let” contradicts the principles of the functioning of the literary language, which has a fixed, culturally fixed norm. This is where the culture of speech comes into play, our aesthetic sense. Here are a few cases that are rejected not only by the norm, but also by our aesthetic perception of language. We agree that it is simply ugly to say like this:
The gutter [zhe] forehead served as a ladder for the arsonists; The theater invites you to the premiere of a sparkling operetta; There are such surges in the economy; By burying the remains of the slain, we atone for the guilt of our ancestors; The snow falls like a dead stone.
And it would be good to remember that one should say “holo[v'e]shka”, “o[s'e] long” and that the pronunciation “incomplete[m'e]ny” is still preferable.
Change of unstressed vowels
The normativity of the sound composition of a word can also be violated due to unstressed vowels. We will consider the following cases.
1. Let's start with examples:
We inform you of the telephone number of the Pervouralsky k[a]rpunkt; Famous [a]stroy-plot films will be shown; A festival is held in honor of the centenary of the fiftieth anniversary of the birth of Rimsky-Korsakov.
This case stands, as it were, on the boundary between this and the previous sections of the presentation. The speaker perceives the highlighted positions as unstressed and therefore pronounces in place [o] a sound close to [a]. Normally, these syllables have an additional stress. Therefore, they need to pronounce the sound [o]: k[o"]rpu"nkt, [o"]strosyuzhe"tny, st[o"]fifty years"tie [See: Graudina et al. 1976: 268-269].
2. Again at the beginning of the material:
Children learn to cook the most [a]elementary; Our movement includes specialists in the field of [a]cology, medicine, and education. And on the screen of one of the TV channels in Yekaterinburg, it was even written about the speaker: an antamologist (since they were talking about mosquitoes, they clearly meant an entomologist, that is, a person who studies insects).
In modern Russian, there is a tendency to dephonologize unstressed vowels, simply speaking, in an unstressed position, we tend to distinguish less and less vowel sounds. It is no coincidence that the pronunciation of degrees [b] sov was fixed, that is, the reduction of not only the shock [a] and [o], but also [y]. However, at the beginning of a word, in place of the unstressed [e], as Russian Grammar points out, you need to pronounce [s e] - “the sound of the non-front row, the middle one between Y and E” [Russian Grammar 1980 vol. 1: 25, 26]. Therefore, the pronunciation reflected in the examples should be considered incorrect. Probably, the manifestation of this pattern can be seen in the pronunciation [e] integration (The main trend now is [e] integration), unless it is an individual pronunciation defect.
stress
The greatest number of errors in the pronunciation of words is associated with stress. This circumstance is explained by the nature of stress in Russian. It is diverse and mobile, that is, firstly, its place is not assigned to any one syllable in a word, for example, to the first, last or penultimate one, and secondly, it can fall on different syllables in the forms of one and the same same words.
fixed accent
The error may lie in the fact that in a word with a fixed stress on a particular syllable, it is transferred to another syllable, still remaining fixed. For example, the word "pen" in all forms is pronounced with an emphasis on the first syllable. But for just two days, different people on different radio channels pronounced it like this: Penya "- fifty to sixty percent; Compared to the penalty, these accounts are profitable; This made it possible to stop the accrual of fines. "We see that the place of stress has changed: it now falls not on the root, but on the ending. But it remains motionless, that is, in different forms falls on the second syllable (most likely these people will pronounce in the accusative: penalty ").
Words that are of the same type in morphemic structure can have different stresses in Russian: intention, but destruction; peasants "nin, but nobles" n; make it easier, but circumvent; dosu "g, but to" stupas; posu "l, but on" step; nedu "g, but not" able, not "account. Poor possession of the norm, fast pace of speech and many other reasons lead to a mixture of stress patterns:
Provocations are planned imitating the destruction of "villages and dwellings; Agreements" of intent "are signed; It is necessary to create peasants" well normal conditions work; These people are called upon to alleviate the situation of the elderly; The transfer of disabled people to lighter types of work is used; There was a system of organization before "the age of our youth; We must look at deeds, and not at those promises and promises that a person gives; He did not come to terms with the non-arc.
The transfer of stress can be affected by rapprochement with related words: Some of the outside owners of the tavern came up with the idea of taking autographs from famous visitors (norm: old. Influence: yes).
There are especially many errors in the pronunciation of borrowed words, and not necessarily new ones for our language. Traditionally, erroneous stresses in the words: dispensary "r, catalo" g, quart "l, expert" rt (and derivatives):
We need a repair of a tuberculosis dispensary "nsera; Colorful catalogs will help you; We have set the task in the first quarter of this year to start mining bauxite; The Center for Innovative Business can serve as an expert center.
For decades, all reference books have been telling us about the normal pronunciation of these words. And who knows, maybe, at least about some of them, the dictionary will eventually say something like: “expe” rt, it’s permissible e “expert”, how he put up with the vocalizations “mi” grain or “college” . Only one thing, apparently, can prevent such an outcome of the struggle of options - the stamp of illiteracy, low level speech culture. For example, it is unlikely that the pronunciation "kvartal" will be recognized as acceptable, it looks so rudely colloquial today, it is not for nothing that other errors often appear in statements next to it, compare "to" bull "in the above example or the non-normative form of the ordinal number in the following : The report for the first quarter will be March 1, 2001.
Not surprising are the errors in the pronunciation of words that have recently begun to enter into wide circulation and sound on the air: an English newspaper published material about the contacts of the team with the betting syndicate, it was said that the goals were paid (norm: bookmaker "tote holder" , bookmaker "besides: goals" /. How much did our radio and television talk about bookmakers and sweepstakes twenty years ago? It is clear that society learns to pronounce new words for some time, and during this period errors are inevitable.
Probably, the following fluctuations can be explained by the same increased frequency of use: Apocaly "psis of the problem" two thousand "excited everyone (norm: apoca" lipsis); The inevitable result of such management is an ecological collapse (norm: collaps) ps; I am talking with the mullah of this mosque (norm: mullah). A decade ago, these words almost did not sound on the air. Now, when any election campaign turns into a horror movie, and also when society's craving for eternal values, including religious ones, the listed words have entered the active lexicon of every person, in any case, one who can get access to a microphone. And this mass use, as we see, immediately affects the norms of stress.
Reflecting the Russian tragedy, the word “addiction” has become high-frequency, and, probably, under the influence of professional speech, fluctuations in pronunciation arise: Drug addiction is becoming a serious problem. Compare also: The device is used for all spinal anomalies (normal: anomaly).
Finally, errors in words are not uncommon, the frequency of which does not change and fluctuations in the pronunciation of which were not widespread. It’s just that people who pronounce these words with a mistake turned out to be in front of the microphone: We wish you a festive mood under the sconces "bright sounds" of the March of Enthusiasts "(norm: brava" rny; maybe the speaker connects "bravura" and "bravo", "bravo" ); The fall of Moscow pharmacy is explained in a weekly article (norm: pharmacy "pharmacy"; it is quite possible that the speaker mixed "pharmacy" and "formation"); They closely follow all the vicissitudes of football battles in London (the norm: vicissitudes "I; it is obvious that the speaker does not know how this word is spelled - those who know the spelling pronounce it differently: Despite all the vicissitudes" ties, the city will finish this construction. Both pronunciations were probably influenced by the convergence of this word with prefixed formations such as "truce", "overlap"); Kata "rsis to all! (one of the hosts of the Four Quarters on Radio Russia coquettishly wished his listeners. Norm: ka "tarsis. It's hard to say what influenced this pronunciation. Maybe the person just doesn't know the norm, or maybe it affected spontaneous speech the usual melodic and rhythmic pattern of many wishes such as “thanks to everyone”, “health to everyone!”, “success to everyone!”, that is ′ - - ′ -, but not ′ - ′ - -.
With regard to stress, words related to the sphere of the Orthodox religion are very often unlucky. important topic becomes a fashionable topic, and fashionable items are often spoken about, but without proper qualification, including speech:
Here is a scene from the secret supper "ri (norm: supper); The liturgy will be dedicated to the Passion Week (norm: seven); An all-night vigil will begin (norm: all night); Holy week has begun (norm: passionate) People wanted to put at least a spruce branch over their temple "noah (norm: temple"). Apparently, due to hypercorrectness, such pronunciations also arise: It was considered a special sin to eat an apple before the second Savior (norm: sin "m); He assured that the check would go to a good cause (norm: good).
As can be seen in the case of "Holy Week", the transfer of stress can interfere with the distinction of meanings: This is reported in the "Tale of Bygone Years" (norm: temporary "x").
Movable stress
First of all, we will consider violations of the norms of mobile stress in names, mainly in nouns.
1. An accent that is fixed according to the norm can be replaced in names by a non-normative movable one. Let us turn to the cases when errors arise under the influence of the linguistic trend in the development of declensions. Errors here are numerous, and deviations gradually but stubbornly win one position after another and move to the position of acceptable options. First of all, this type of error is observed in the nominative case plural, where the linguistic tendency to combine declensions in the plural has not been fully realized (compare the dative, instrumental and prepositional cases, where the vast majority of nouns have the same endings regardless of gender). The ending -а has the greatest activity in the nominative plural, which in some cases displaces the ending -ы. Such, for example, is the famous "contract" where the ending -a has already been recognized as admissible, along with the strictly normative "contract"ry. The influence of this trend can also affect purely phonetically, as. transfer of stress to the ending -a with a normative fixed stress on the base. An example here is the most popular, but non-normative "means"" with the norm of "means".
Behind this form, the emphasis is transferred to the ending in other plural forms: We will help in mobile means "x to stop the drug trade (norm: means" means). The same process is observed in other words: They present themselves as figures who can do good to the population (norm: blah) ha); Societies "Petrel", "Zenith" and others were united (norm: o "societies; the shift of emphasis to the ending was reflected in the form of the genitive plural: We note the creation of new societies, clubs. Need: o" societies).
In some cases, one can see the influence of analogy. In the following example, the source of the analogy is present in the statement itself: The issue of the supply of coal "and fuel oil" is being decided (norm: fuel oil "ta; most likely this is an analogy with the previous "coal""). In other examples, you can see the influence of the model, but not specific words: Here we have a linen knitwear department "(norm: knitwear" Ms; analogy with forms such as "gara" w-garazh ""); Only snobs say so "(norm: sno" would; analogy with "pillar-pillars"); These are small loaves "in the form of birds - larks (norm: loaves" btsy; analogy with "stuffed cabbage rolls" "").
2. We turn to the analysis of errors, which consist in the fact that the normative mobile stress is replaced by a non-normative fixed one. There are nouns in which, in the singular, the stress falls on the stem, and in the plural, on the ending: tom, to "ma - toma", tomo "v. The error is that the stress becomes fixed, remaining in all forms on the syllable of the stem : We also do thermal balloons (norm: balloons "); In the West, flying in balloons" is a craze (norm: balloon "x); In the West, incidents with balloons are more common, maybe because that they don’t know how to fall there (norm: balls "mi).
Another model of stress is its movement from the base to the ending in indirect plural cases: do "la, o do" le - do "li, o share" x. The violation of the norm is reflected in the fact that in these cases the emphasis is transferred to the basis: the Duma can adopt a document with two thirds of the votes (norm: thirds).
Another stress model is characterized by the fact that in the singular the accusative case differs in the place of stress from other cases: water, water, water. It can erroneously align with the rest of the paradigm on this basis: This is a person who knows the price "of the world ( norm: tse "well).
3. Note the cases when a mobile accent of one type is replaced by a mobile one, but of a different pattern: The draft agreement between the parties to the conflict in Kosovo is rejected (the norm: the parties).
Finally, let's pay attention to the combination of some nouns with the numerals two, three, four: two hours. hours" in combination with a numeral does not coincide with the form of the genitive case in combination, for example, “I don’t even have an hour free.” This happens because in conjunction with numerals, the form of the dual number has been preserved to this day [Ivanov 1964: 331]. television and radio speech, there is a loss of these forms: Two hours have passed. This emphasis is not normal.
The same desire to unify forms at the place of stress explains errors in pronunciation short adjectives: You are right" (norm: right "you; the influence of the form" right "")
The norms of mobile stress are often violated in the forms of the verb.
Let's start with the infinitive: We invite everyone to take part in this job fair (norm: accept; grammatical analogy with the forms “accepted, accepted”); This did not prevent him from taking the first place (norm: take; take; the influence of the forms "took, took, took").
Past tense. Here, as in short adjectives, the desire to unify the forms at the place of stress affects: the Commission "adopted this project as a basis (norm: accepted"; analogy with "adopted"); "lo; analogy with "removed""); It is necessary that people understand the situation (norm: understood; the analogy goes beyond the paradigm of the past tense: understand); This process "began a long time ago (norm: began"; the analogy goes beyond the paradigm of this verb: on " chal).
It also happens that the stress that is fixed within the past tense forms is shifted under the influence of the forms of another tense of the same verb: They invested about eight million rubles in this event (norm: invest whether; analogy with “invest” lives, invest ").
In present and future simple tense there may be a movement of stress, although according to the norm the verb has a fixed stress: He calls "to the editor (norm: call" t; the influence of another stress model like "love" t, love "l - lu" bit, lyu "bim"). There may also be a reverse process, when the number of forms that are the same at the place of stress increases: Local electricians are not in a hurry to explain the situation (norm: hurry up; hurried "having").
From gerunds we only note “pa” remembering. It is used much more often than the verb “pa” remembering and, apparently, therefore, it begins to be pronounced with a different emphasis: Pierce Brosnan agreed to talk with our correspondent, remembering “I have a long friendship with Komsomolskaya Pravda. The shift in stress is probably caused by the convergence with the more usual vowel of the form: organizing "I, face" I, criticism of "I, credit" I, and so on.
Participle. In spontaneous speech, the passive participles of the past tense manifest themselves most actively, in which the greatest number of errors are observed. Firstly, in some cases, the emphasis shifts to the root or closer to the root: Here people will restore health after suffering diseases (norm: transferred; analogy with “suffered”); The detachment was well equipped (norm: equipped " van, from the verb “to equip”; analogy with forms like: “analyzed”, “corrected”).
Secondly, the opposite phenomenon is observed - the transfer of stress from the root to the affix: The nobility and the bourgeoisie of Austria-Hungary were equalized "in rights (norm: cheers" are removed; the influence of the forms "equal" t, equal "l" is possible, where the place of stress is different , but still not at the root); The material is called "Model of a "played match" (norm: lost; probably, the frustrated speaker was thinking not so much about communion as about" losing).
As in the personal forms of the past tense, in the short passive participles of the past tense, errors in stress can occur under the influence of feminine forms: "Important decisions were made (norm: "adopted"; analogy with "adopted"". In turn, this form experiences the movement of stress under the influence of the forms "accepted, accepted" and is often pronounced like this: accepted).
Regarding the real participles of the present, we note the often used form “powerful” with the wrong accent: It is from them, who cannot find a job, that the wives leave “of course, the form“ mo “gut” influences, to remember the norm, we can take into account that the Russian equivalent of this Old Slavonic borrowing is the adjective "mogu" chiy, which no one tries to pronounce as "moguchy").
Of the real participles of the past tense, we will especially single out the form "died" rshiy, which, under the influence of the forms "y" mer, y "merli", is very often pronounced incorrectly:
As our material shows, errors in the phonetic level, most often without complicating understanding, reduce the cultural and speech characteristics of the speech and, of course, damage the image of the speaker. The editor cannot interfere with the live text, but he has the ability to influence the level of speech culture of the editorial staff. Journalists, in turn, can prevent the penetration of at least some phonetic errors in the speech of their interlocutors into the air, in one way or another eliminating the errors that emerged in preliminary conversations.
2.2.2. Morphological level
The morphological level is the level that determines the formation and change of words. Therefore, the norms here concern word formation and inflection.
word formation
Violation of the norms of word formation can be defined either as a non-normative replacement of one word-formation model with another model, or as the creation of a new word without any particular need.
Model replacement
Since the word-formation model includes such elements as a generating stem and a word-forming means, errors can also look like violations in the choice of one or the other.
1. Consider the following statements.
The audience simply went berserk, I did not recognize my Kurians. - Norma: went berserk. Most likely, the speaker, as if he did not want to fight with this complex confluence of sounds of "stovs", but a neoplasm turned out. If the normative verb goes back to the noun "violence", then the non-normative - to the adjective "violent".
There were rumors about such a tournament a year ago. - Norma: negotiations. Now you can often hear statements like: “We discussed this issue very seriously”, “We discussed this topic” (meaning “discussed”, i.e. “discussed”). To indicate the situation "discussion of the issue", the speaker forms a word from the verb "to speak". A new name appears instead of the usual "negotiations".
The prosecutor's office takes under the protection of hooligans, at the same time discrediting the victim. - Norm: at the same time. The speaker used a dialect word (in the Urals, by the way, the adverb "at the same time" is also known). The lexico-syntactic method of word formation is used, and in the literary language one form of the numeral is taken as the initial unit - the accusative case, and in the dialect another form is the instrumental.
2. Deviations from the norm in the choice of word-forming means are diverse due to the fact that these means themselves are diverse.
Iraq must strictly comply with the requirements of the UN. - Norm: strictly. Attachment has been replaced.
I'm not good at gardening. - Norm: in gardening. Probably, the constant proximity of gardening and horticulture affected the design of the first element of the couple and forced the speaker to use the suffix -nichestvo- instead of -stv-.
Bach had many role models. - Norm: to follow. The normative suffix -nii- is replaced by the suffix -enii-.
A talented baker says hello to his old friend. -Norm: .baker. The zero suffix is replaced by the suffix -ar-. The words "baker" and "baker" are contaminated.
Alexy II was invited to Bethlehem in connection with the two thousandth anniversary of Christianity. - Norm: two millennium. The interfix -ух- is replaced by the non-normative morpheme -е-.
New words
New words, as you know, constantly appear in the language both to designate new realities and to obtain an expressive effect when they are re-nominated. A neoplasm is perceived as a mistake only when it is impossible to understand why a new name was needed if the old one would have been enough.
Yes, everything will pass - it's a strike, that's all. - It is unlikely that the statement “Yes, everything will pass - these strikes, everything” is less expressive than the original.
The past day in the Middle Ural region passed as usual. - And here it is not clear why Sredneuralytsin is better than the usual Middle Urals. Moreover, the -schin- model usually gives not a synonym for the producing unit, but a really special name: Tambov region is not Tambov, Turkish region is not just Turkey.
Please excuse us for the sound quality. - This is an uneconomical formation, since a phonogram is a “soundogram”, a sound recording.
This is the name of this month in the ancient Roman language. - The ancient Roman language has long been called Latin.
Supporting charitable organizations is the problem of our survival, the solution of our social issues ... today our task is to determine the problem of our population, how people live today. - Problematic here can be considered only as a means to give thoughtfulness to speech. The usual words "condition" in the first case and "problems" in the second, of course, do not create such an effect.
It happens that, despite the unusualness of the word, it is difficult to evaluate it unambiguously: The media should cover the situation in the army in a new way, then there will be less negativity. - It is clear that it is more common to hear: "there will be less bad" or "there will be less evil." However, the negative attitude of the speaker to this "bad" neoplasm is more pronounced. Therefore, all our reasoning about violations of the norms of word formation cannot be understood as a denial of any word creation. Let word-creation be, but from the fullness of strength, from free possession of the resources of the language, and not from illiteracy and a helpless desire to make speech thoughtful and expressive.
inflection
Violations of the norms of inflection will be considered by parts of speech. Let's start with names.
Noun
First of all, let's turn to declination. We have already considered some errors in the formation of case forms in connection with the phonetic design of the word. This suggests that there is no impassable line between the phenomena of different levels, everything is interconnected in the language. For example, the historical alternations of sounds in the modern Russian language accompany form formation, i.e. morphological phenomenon. But this affects the phonetic appearance of the word, its sound composition. So, the design of the nominative singular "loan", and the indirect - "loan, loan" is associated with the fluency of vowels, i.e. with the historical alternation of sounds accompanying the affixation. Violation of this norm leads to an error in the set of sounds in the forms: “loan, for [yo] ma”. Considering what has been said, we will not be surprised that in a number of cases we will encounter material already familiar to us - we will simply look at the known from a new point of view.
PHONETICS
Phonetics(from Greek - phone "sound") - a branch of the science of language that studies the sounds of speech. They are able to form words with the help of which objects are called, phenomena of the surrounding world: [a] + [k] + [n] - [oґ] - [ akno] = window; [k] + [a] + [c ’] + [o] + [p] - [kav'or] = carpet.
To accurately convey the sound of a word, a special phonetic notation is used - transcription(from Latin trans-criptio - “I rewrite”).
The main signs of transcription:
Transcription boundaries
[' ] - a sign of softness of a consonant [p'et'] - sing
[ j ’] - soft voiced consonant (yot) - pits
Sound is the smallest unit of spoken speech. In the sound of speech, acoustic, articulatory and semantic aspects are distinguished.
Acoustic side of sound perceived by ear. From this point of view, the sound can be high and low, strong and weak, high and low, etc.
Articulating side of sound This is the work of the organs of speech. For example, the sound [p] is formed by the vibration of the tip of the tongue, the sound [y] is formed with the help of the lips.
The semantic side sound lies in the fact that sound can distinguish between the sound shells of words and their forms (in this case it is denoted by the term phoneme). For example, sound shells of words com and catfish differ in phonemic sounds [k] and [s].
There are 42 sounds in Russian: 6 vowels and 36 consonants.
So, the shortest, minimal, non-segmented sound unit, which stands out during the successive sound division of a word, is called the sound of speech. The traditional classification of speech sounds is their division into vowels and consonants.
Consonant sounds and their classification
Consonants differ from vowels in the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity during pronunciation. Consonants differ: 1) in the participation of noise and voice, 2) in the place of noise formation, 3) in the way noise is formed, 4) in the absence or presence of softness.
Participation of noise and voice. According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorant consonants formed with the help of voice and slight noise are called: [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p ']. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [e '], [g], [g '], [h] , [h'], [j], [dz], [j], formed by noise with the participation of the voice. TO noisy deaf consonants include: [n], [n '] [f], [f '], [k], [k '], [t], [t '], [c], [s '], [w] , [w'], [x], [x'], [c], [h'], formed only with the help of one noise, without the participation of the voice.
The location of the noise. Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, consonants can be labial - labial[b], [p], [m] and labial-dental[c], [f]. lingual divided into anterior lingual, middle lingual and posterior lingual. Frontlingual may be dental[t], [d], [s], [s], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-dental[h], [w], [g], [r]; middle language - palatal[j]; back-lingual - posterior palatine[g], [k], [x].
Noise generation methods. Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive[b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], slotted[c], [f], [s], [h], [w], [g], [j], [x], affricates [c], [h], closure-through: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants) [p].
Hardness and softness of consonants. The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization(Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of the midpalatal articulation of the tongue, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds produced with this additional articulation are called soft, and those formed without it - solid.
A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlative in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound. Wed . rose - dew and roses - grew [grew - grew]. So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [e] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in deafness-voicedness.
The correlative series of deaf and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants are distinguished by the presence of a voice (voiced) or its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], - unpaired voiced, [x], [c], [ h'] - unpaired deaf.
The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differs in some positions, but does not differ in others, which leads to the presence in the consonant system of a correlative series of hard and soft sounds. So, before the vowel [o], [l] - [l ’] are distinguished (cf .: lot-ice [lot - l’ot], and before the sound [e], not only [l] - [l ’], but also other paired hard-soft sounds are not distinguished (cf .: [l'es], [v'es], [b'es] etc.).
Vowel sounds and their classification
Vowel sounds differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.
The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels: 1) the degree of rise of the tongue, 2) the place of rise of the tongue, and 3) the participation or non-participation of the lips. The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, on the state of which the quality of the vowel depends.
According to the degree of vertical rise of the tongue, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: high vowels[and], [s], [y]; mid vowels[e], [o]; low vowel[a].
The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels[and], [e]; middle vowels[s], [a] and back vowels[y], [o].
The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized(rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized(unrounded) [a], [e], [i], [s].
In Russian 37 to 43 sounds:
5 or 6 vowels: a, e, o, i, u, + s(M. school does not highlight S, because it is considered a variant of I)
Consonants: 12 pairs on TV / soft. 3 always hard: g, w, c, 2 always soft: h, j, + k, g, x ( their soft var. in loans. words - not a Russian sound)
32 consonants + k", g", x" + vowels= 40 + w" and w"(long) + s= 43.
Speech sounds- the smallest. sounds. units that we hear and pronounce, letters- conditional graphic signs that are expressed speech sounds in writing.
Stressed vowels are pronounced distinctly and clearly, in unstressed words it is unclear, therefore in unstressed syllables, vowels and sounds may not coincide: product - t[A]var.
Strong pos. - under. hit. Absolute strong pos.- under attack. in the beginning. the words.
Iotated letters e, yo, yu, i are not sounds.
b and b are not sounds, the combination ts gives the sound [c], the letter combination sch gives the sound [u '].
5. System of vowel sounds. Laws in force in the field of vowels.
Vowels (6 pcs) - a, o, i, u, uh, s - Moscow the school considers option I)
The basic Law - Reduction(abbreviated sound). The further the sound is from the stress, the shorter it is (150 ms under stress, without - shorter).
Types of reduction: quantitative(and, s, y) - the sound is reduced, quality(a, o, e) - the sound itself changes.
Positions: tb, t "b ←t˄,t" and uh ←t,t"A, O, E →tb, t "b
Retreat from the law: at the absolute beginning of the word cap ( ˄ rbat)
After soft accord. in the first pre-shock. syllable a, oh, uh pronunciation. how
[ and e ] : [l "and e do´k], [l" and e sa´]
After firm acc. in the first pre-shock.uh sounds like [ s e ] : [shy e hundred'y "].
It exists in case endings. and verbs, where there is a graphic I AM, is written posterior palatine reducer Kommersant: storm - drill "b.
6. The system of consonant sounds. Phonetic processes and laws operating in the field of consonants.
12 pairs on tv/soft: p, b, m, c, t, e, h, s, r, l, n, f + their soft variants, 3 always hard: g, w, c, 2 always soft: h, j + k, g, x( their soft var. in loans. words - not a Russian sound) + k", g", x"+ f" and sh"(long soft)
The law of the end of the word.All paired deaf / bell. are stunned: brain [sk], threshold - vice, young - hammer, goats - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end both are stunned: breast - sadness.
Assimilation (likening one sound to another)- with [z] beat, tale [c] ka. Occurs between sounds of the same type (vowels or consonants). assimilation can be complete(in this case, the assimilated sound completely coincides with the one to which it is likened) and incomplete. Towards - progressive(the previous sound affects the last - a fairy tale) and regressive(the last sound affects the previous one - the score).
Dissimilation (dissimilation: two or more identical or similar sounds diverge in pronunciation further and further) - bonba, tranway, collidor, secretary.
Accommodation - consonants affect the pronunciation of vowels
1) back or middle vowels [a], [o], [y] become more front after soft consonants: rad-row, lot-ice, bow-hatch, n˙yanya.
2) Ira and I [raw]
or vowels affect the pronunciation of consonants.
1) if m and s merge, a long sound appears:
2) rounding of consonants after labial vowels: that [t˚ot]
Proclitic: full (unstressed are adjacent to percussion) and relative (unstressed prim to percussion, but the quality of unstressed does not change). The unions BUT and TO are a proclitic, but relates ..
he is a deacon [d'jakon], but a deacon [d'jakn]; I'm with her, but clearer
Phonetich. processes:
Diereza- one sound is thrown out, another sound is formed: heart [s'erts], sad, idle, feeling.
Epenthesis- inserting a sound where it was not: beaver-beaver, fire-fire, betray-transmit, shame-stram, scorpion-scorpion.
Prosthesis- inserting a sound at the beginning of a word: eight-octopus, sharp-sharp
Metathesis- mutual permutation of sounds or syllables in words on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation: case (from German futteral), plate (talerka), marble (murmor)
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1. Acquaintance with the concept of "sound of speech".
The students, together with the teacher, listen to various sounds and, in a general conversation, establish the difference between physical sounds (knocking, creaking, etc.), animal sounds, and speech sounds. It turns out that the sounds of speech are peculiar only to humans.
We already know that speech is made up of words. Now let's try to determine what the words consist of.
The teacher refers to the words of different languages, presents to the students those of them that, having a common meaning, are not at all similar in sound composition, for example: night and knight, ball and beat. Comparing them, students try to explain why they are not similar. Teacher taking Active participation in a general conversation, salt them to the conclusion that these words consist of different sounds.
Now children can ask questions: what are speech sounds? How and with what help are they formed? Free replies to such questions will show the students' initial level of awareness of the concept of "sound" and their ability to feel articulation.
2. Observation of the sound composition of words.
The teacher invites the students to slowly pronounce the words, trying to stretch out each sound, and at the same time look at each other. You can also use small mirrors, looking and which students will be able to see the movements of the speech organs when pronouncing different sounds. In order for children to clearly notice the movements of the lips and tongue, you need to choose words, when pronouncing which these movements will be clearly visible, for example: milk, peacock.
The conclusion about the ways of pronouncing sounds is still being made in a free form: one of the children can say “the mouth says”, someone - the sounds are obtained because the lips and tongue move, etc. In subsequent lessons, the teacher leads the students to a more accurate understanding of the work of the articulatory and vocal apparatus.
3. Articulation gymnastics.
To successfully operate with sounds, you need to learn the pony-Mother and feel the movements of the lips and tongue, the work of the vocal cords. Exercise helps with this. articulatory gymnastics given on p. 158.
4. Observation of the mechanism of formation of individual speech sounds, participation of lips, tongue and voice.
Students, under the guidance of a teacher, pronounce different speech sounds, discuss and establish the method of formation of each of them: in what position are the lips and tongue in this case, whether the vocal cords are involved.
The features of pronunciation, for example, the sound [m] are considered. Lips tightly closed. Language does not play a decisive role. You can verify this by pronouncing a sound with the tongue raised up, lowered down or shifted to the side. work
So from the very beginning, on the example of acquaintance with voiced sounds, students are preparing for the assimilation of paired consonants. In conclusion, it is concluded that lips and voice are involved in the formation of sound, and the tongue lies calmly.
The pronunciation of the sound [s] is considered similarly. Here leading role the tongue plays: its tip rests on the lower teeth; if you change its position, the sound will not work. But the lips practically do not participate: the sound is obtained even when the lips are stretched out, with the lips stretched. The voice is also not included. The sound [s] is pronounced only in a whisper, when you turn on the voice, another sound is obtained - [z].
Thus, the pronunciation of approximately six to eight sounds is analyzed. As a result, children, with the help of a teacher, conclude: each sound of speech is pronounced in its own way; if you change the position of the tongue, lips, turn the voice on or off, then the sound also changes.
Since in the future students will often return to observing the movements of the tongue, lips and the participation of the voice, it is advisable to introduce them to the term "articulation" - the work or position of the speech organs when pronouncing speech sounds. But students should not be required to use this term in their own speech. It is enough if the teacher uses it, and the children understand it.
In conclusion, it is advisable to invite students to say a few short words, first observing in the mirror how the lips and tongue move at the same time, and then pronounce the same words without a mirror, concentrating on the movements of your articulatory and vocal apparatus. Then once again repeat the general conclusion made earlier - words consist of sounds.
5. Acquaintance with the graphic representation of sounds.
The teacher asks the students to remember any sound, but not to say it out loud. After giving 10-20 seconds for reflection (a technique that teaches children to pause between a task or a question and an answer), the teacher invites one of the students to pronounce the sound he has conceived, for example [a].
This is followed by the task of thinking and naming two other sounds, performed in the same way as the first. Called student for example, sounds [y], [m].
How many sounds do you think Mitya and Alyosha made together? (Three.) Repeat these three sounds. ([a], [y], [m].)
Now remember and prepare to say three more new sounds. Be quiet until I ask one of you.
After a pause, one of the students pronounces, for example, the sounds [l], [n], [and].
Here, not everyone will be able to answer correctly: it is difficult for someone to count in their mind, and someone simply forgot the previous sounds. Now, if they were fixed on a board or on paper, then it would be easy to answer the question.
The teacher shows the students that the sound is indicated by a dot or a small circle. First, one sound was uttered, then Dna, then three. Their record looks like this: o o o o o o.
6. Formation of the ability to determine the number of sounds.
The teacher asks the students to listen to the sounds he makes and say how many sounds they heard: [a] [m]. (Two.) Both sounds are indicated in the notebook by circles located through the box.
And how many sounds did I utter now: [os]? (Also two.)
Skip three cells to the right and draw them on the same line next to each other, but without skipping a cell.
