Domestic and foreign policy of the rulers of the XVIII century. Palace coups of the 18th century How many palace coups in the 18th century

Introduction

1. Palace coups of the 18th century

1.1 First coups. Naryshkins and Miloslavskys

1.3 "The idea of the leaders"

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

1.6 Coup of Catherine II

Conclusion

Introduction

The era of palace coups, as is usually called in Russian historiography, the time from the death of Peter I in 1725 to the accession to the throne of Catherine II in 1762. From 1725 to 1761, the widow of Peter Catherine I (1725-1727), his grandson Peter II (1727-1730), his niece the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) and her sister's grandson baby Ivan Antonovich (1740) visited the Russian throne -1741), his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761). This list is closed by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna, the paternal grandson of the Swedish King Charles XII and the maternal grandson of Peter I, Duke of Holstein Peter III. “These people had neither the strength nor the desire to continue or destroy the work of Peter; they could only spoil it” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

What was the essence of the era of palace coups? Historians pay attention to two important facts. On the one hand, it was a reaction to the stormy reign of Peter I, his grandiose transformations. On the other hand, the post-Petrine period formed a new nobility and palace coups in the 18th century. carried out by the noble aristocracy in the interests of their class. Their result was the growth of noble privileges and the intensification of the exploitation of the peasants. Under these conditions, individual attempts by the government to soften the serf regime could not be successful, and thus, palace coups, strengthening serfdom, contributed to the crisis of feudalism.

The purpose of this work is to highlight all the palace coups of the 18th century and identify their causes, as well as to assess the transformations of Catherine II in the era of "enlightened absolutism".

This work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The total amount of work is 20 pages.

1. Palace coups of the XVIII century 1.1 The first coups. Naryshkins and Miloslavskys

The first coups took place already at the end of the 17th century, when, after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, supporters and relatives of Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna achieved the election of the youngest of his brothers, Peter Alekseevich, to the throne, bypassing the elder Ivan. In essence, this was the first palace coup that took place peacefully. But two weeks later, Moscow was shaken by the Streltsy rebellion, most likely initiated by the relatives of Tsarevich Ivan by his mother, the Miloslavskys. After the bloody reprisals against the participants in the first coup, both Ivan and Peter were proclaimed kings, and the real power was in the hands of their elder sister, Princess Sophia. It is significant that this time, in order to achieve their goals, the conspirators used military force- archers, who were the police support of power. However, Sophia could formally rule only as long as her brothers remained children. According to some reports, the princess was preparing a new coup, intending to proclaim herself an autocratic queen. But in 1689, taking advantage of the rumor about the archers' campaign against Preobrazhenskoye, Peter fled to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and soon gathered significant forces there. Their core was made up of his amusing regiments, which later became the basis of the regular army, its guards, which played an important role in almost all subsequent palace coups. The open confrontation between sister and brother ended with the arrest of Sophia and her exile to a monastery.

1.2 Revolutions after the death of Peter the Great. Menshikov and Dolgoruky

Peter the Great died in 1725 without leaving an heir and before he could implement his decree of 1722, according to which the tsar had the right to appoint his own successor. Among those who could claim the throne at that time were the grandson of Peter I - the young tsarevich Peter Alekseevich, the wife of the late tsar - Ekaterina Alekseevna and their daughters - princesses Anna and Elizabeth. It is believed that Peter I was going to leave the throne to Anna, but then changed his mind and therefore crowned (for the first time in Russian history) his wife Catherine. However, shortly before the death of the king, the relationship of the spouses deteriorated sharply. Each of the applicants had their supporters.

Companions of Peter, new nobles A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, P.A. Tolstoy, F. Prokopovich advocated the transfer of the throne to the wife of the late emperor - Catherine (Martha Skavronskaya), a nobleman from the old boyar families D.M. Golitsyn, Dolgoruky, Saltykov, who were hostile to the "new upstarts", proposed to make the grandson of Peter the Tsar. A.D., who supported Ekaterina, turned out to be the quickest of all. Menshikov. Disputes were interrupted by the appearance of the Guards regiments. Having set up the guards regiments accordingly, he built them under the windows of the palace and thus achieved the proclamation of the queen as an autocratic empress. It was not a pure palace coup, since it was not about a change of power, but about choosing among contenders for the throne, but the very way the issue was resolved anticipated subsequent events.

In her reign, the government was headed by people who had come to the fore under Peter, primarily Menshikov. However, the old nobility also had a great influence, especially the Golitsyns and Dolgoruky. The struggle of the old and new nobles led to a compromise: on February 8, 1726, a Supreme Privy Council of six people headed by Menshikov was created by decree: D.M. Golitsyn, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, A.I. Osterman and Duke Karl Friedrich, husband of Princess Anna Petrovna. The Council, as the new supreme body of power, pushed aside the Senate and began to decide the most important matters. The Empress did not interfere. The Menshikov government, relying on the nobles, expanded their privileges, allowed them to create patrimonial manufactories and trade. The "Verkhovniki" destroyed the Petrine system of local sectoral bodies - its maintenance was expensive, while the government was striving for economy: the poll tax was not fully received, and the ruin of the peasants was reflected in the landowners' economy. The poll tax was reduced, the participation of troops in its collection was canceled. All power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The administration began to cost the state cheaper, but its arbitrariness intensified. There were plans to review other reforms as well.

May 6, 1727 Catherine I died. According to her will, the throne passed to the grandson of Peter I, Tsarevich Peter, a tall, healthy 12-year-old boy. Wanting to become regent, Menshikov, during the life of Catherine, betrothed his daughter to Peter II. But now Menshikov was opposed by the "supervisors" - Count A.I. Osterman, tutor of Peter II, and princes Dolgoruky. 17-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was a favorite of Peter II, a friend of his amusements. In September 1727, Peter deprived Menshikov of all his posts and exiled him to Berezov at the mouth of the Ob, where he died in 1729. The Dolgoruky decided to strengthen their influence on Peter by marrying him to the sister of Ivan Dolgoruky. The court and the collegium moved to Moscow, where the wedding was being prepared. But in the midst of preparations on January 18, 1730, Peter II died of smallpox. The male line of the Romanov family was discontinued.

The guards did not participate in the next coup, and Menshikov himself became its victim. It happened already in 1728, during the reign of Peter II. Having concentrated all power in his hands and completely controlling the young tsar, the temporary worker suddenly fell ill, and while he was ill, his political opponents, princes Dolgoruky and A.I.

Osterman, managed to gain influence on the tsar and obtain from him a decree, first on the resignation, and then on the exile of Menshikov to Siberia. This was a new palace coup, because as a result, power in the country passed to a different political force.

1.3 "The idea of the leaders"

According to the will of Catherine I, in the event of the death of Peter II, the throne passed to one of her daughters. But the "supervisors" did not want to lose power. At the suggestion of D.M. Golitsyn, they decided to elect Anna Ioannovna to the throne - the widow of the Duke of Courland, the daughter of Peter I's brother Tsar Ivan, as a representative of the senior line of the Romanov dynasty. Under the conditions of the dynastic crisis, the members of the Supreme Privy Council attempted to limit autocracy in Russia and forced Anna Ioannovna, elected by them to the throne, to sign "conditions". Since the leaders kept their plans secret, their whole undertaking was in the nature of a real conspiracy, and if their plan had succeeded, this would have meant a change in the political system of Russia. But this did not happen, and the decisive role was again played by the guards officers, whom the supporters of the autocracy managed to bring into the palace in time. At the right moment, they declared their adherence to traditional forms of government so decisively that everyone else had no choice but to join them.

Before arriving in Russia, Anna Ioannovna signed "conditions" that limited her power: do not rule without the consent of the "supervisors", do not execute the gentry without trial, do not take away or grant estates without the sanction of the "supervisors", do not marry, do not appoint a successor, his favorite E.I. Biron should not be brought to Russia. Anna Ioannovna made sure that the secret "conditions" became known to everyone. The nobility revolted against the "supreme leaders". During the coronation on February 25, 1730, Anna broke her “conditions”, stepped on them and proclaimed herself a colonel of the Preobrazhensky regiment and an autocrat. On March 4, 1730, she abolished the Supreme Privy Council, exiled Dolgoruky and executed D.M. Golitsyn was imprisoned, where he died. The Senate resumed its activity. October 18, 1731. the Cabinet of Ministers and the Office of Secret Investigation Affairs were established, headed by A.I. Ushakov - the secret political police, terrifying with torture and executions. The cabinet of ministers was so powerful that from 1735 the signatures of all three cabinet ministers could replace the signature of Anna herself. Thus, the Cabinet legally became the supreme institution of the state. Anna surrounded herself with Courland nobles, led by E.I. Biron, who was soon elected Duke of Courland, spent her time in amusements, horseback riding, and hunting. Anna made new concessions to the Russian nobles. On December 9, 1730, Peter's decree on single inheritance was canceled. In 1736, the service of the nobility ceased to be indefinite, it was limited to 25 years (from 20 to 45 years). One of the noble sons could stay at home and run the household. For the children of nobles in St. Petersburg, they founded the Land Gentry Corps (cadet), where officers were trained. But the Russian nobles were dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners who occupied all important posts. In 1738 Cabinet Minister A.P. Volynsky and his supporters tried to oppose the "Bironism", but were arrested. In 1740, Volynsky and two of his associates were executed after suffering, the rest had their tongues cut out and sent to hard labor.

Having no heirs, Anna summoned her niece to Russia - the daughter of Catherine's elder sister Anna (Elizaveta) Leopoldovna with her husband Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg Anton-Ulrich and their son, a three-month-old baby Ivan. On October 17, 1740, Anna Ioannovna died, and the child was proclaimed emperor Ivan VI, and Biron, according to Anna's will, as regent. Biron's regency caused general discontent, even among the German relatives of Ivan VI.

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

Unpopular and unsupported by any section of society, the duke behaved arrogantly, defiantly, and soon quarreled even with the parents of the infant emperor. Meanwhile, the prospect of waiting for Ivan Antonovich to come of age under the rule of Biron did not attract anyone, least of all the guards, whose idol was the daughter of Peter I, Tsesarevna Elizaveta Petrovna. Field Marshal B.K. took advantage of these sentiments. Minich, for whom Biron was an obstacle to the heights of power. On the night of November 9, 1740, a detachment of 80 guardsmen led by Minikh broke into the Summer Palace and, almost without resistance, arrested Biron. Probably, many of the participants in the coup thought that now Elizabeth would become the empress, but this was not part of Minich's plans and the mother of Ivan Antonovich Anna Leopoldovna was declared the ruler, and his father, Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, received the title of generalissimo and commander-in-chief of the Russian army. The latter was unexpected for Munnich, who hoped to become a generalissimo himself. In a fit of resentment, he resigned and soon received it. But this was the ruler’s mistake, because now there was no one left in her entourage who would have influence on the guard.

The glee that seized the inhabitants of St. Petersburg over the overthrow of Biron was soon replaced by despondency: Anna Leopoldovna was a kind woman, but lazy and completely incapable of governing the state. Her inactivity demoralized the highest dignitaries, who did not know what decisions to make, and who preferred not to decide anything, so as not to make a fatal mistake. Meanwhile, the name of Elizabeth was still on everyone's lips. For the guardsmen and residents of St. Petersburg, she was primarily the daughter of Peter the Great, whose reign was remembered as a time of glorious military victories, grandiose transformations, and at the same time order and discipline. People from Anna Leopoldovna's entourage saw Elizabeth as a threat and demanded that the dangerous rival be removed from St. Petersburg by marrying her off or simply sending her to a monastery. Such a danger, in turn, pushed Elizabeth to conspiracy.

She was also not too power-hungry, more than anything she was attracted by dresses, balls and other entertainments, and it was this way of life that she was most afraid of losing.

1.5 Peter's daughter rises to power

The conspiracy was pushed by Elizabeth and her own environment, in which there were also foreigners who pursued their own interests. So, the doctor of the princess Lestok brought her together with the French ambassador, the Marquis of Chétardie, who counted, in the event of Elizabeth coming to power, on Russia's refusal from the alliance with Austria and rapprochement with France. Changes in Russian foreign policy were also sought by the Swedish ambassador Nolken, who hoped to achieve a revision of the terms of the Peace of Nystadt in 1721, which secured Russia's possessions in the Baltic states. But Elizabeth was not at all going to give Sweden land, and she did not really need foreigners either. On the contrary, it was precisely the abundance of foreigners at court that was one of the factors that irritated both the guards and the inhabitants of St. Petersburg.

A new coup was carried out by the guards regiments in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. The French ambassador was involved in the conspiracy, hoping to benefit from this for his country. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizabeth, at the head of the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, arrested the Braunschweig family and deposed Ivan Antonovich. Soon the carriages of the dignitaries awakened by the drummers were drawn to the palace, in a hurry to express their loyal feelings to the new ruler of Russia. She herself forever remembered this night not only as the night of her triumph. From now on, she always saw the specter of a new coup, she tried not to sleep at night and in all her palaces she did not have a permanent bedroom, but ordered every night to make a bed in different chambers.

The arrested were sent abroad, but returned from the way, kept in exile in different cities, finally placed in Kholmogory, and when Ivan Antonovich grew up, he, as a contender for the throne, was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, ordering the commandant to kill the prisoner while trying to escape. When on July 4-5, 1764, a descendant of noble Cossacks, the son of the governor, lieutenant Vasily Yakovlevich Mirovich, tried to release Ivan Antonovich, the commandant complied with the order.

In the reign of Elizabeth, Russia returned to the Petrine order: the Senate was restored and the Cabinet of Ministers was liquidated, the magistrates resumed their activities, and the Secret Chancellery was preserved. In 1744 the death penalty was abolished. In the development of Peter's reforms, other measures were taken in the spirit of "enlightened absolutism", for which in 1754 the Legislative Commission was formed. According to her projects, on April 1, 1754, internal customs duties were abolished. Decree of 1754. "On the Punishment of Moneylenders" the marginal interest rate was capped at 6%. They formed the State Loan Bank, which consisted of the Bank for the Nobility and the Merchant Bank. The pro-noble nature of the reforms was especially reflected in the granting to the nobles in 1754 of a monopoly on distillation. According to the new decree, the nobles had to prove their origin. Decrees were being prepared on the secularization of church lands and "liberties of the nobility." Munnich and Osterman were sent into exile. In contrast to the recent dominance of the Germans at the court, the main government posts were now occupied by Russian nobles. Counts Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov and Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin became prominent statesmen. Favorites mattered. The singer of the court choir, the Ukrainian peasant Alexei Grigorievich Rozum, became Count Razumovsky and field marshal. At the end of 1742, he and Elizabeth secretly married in the church of the village of Perovo near Moscow (now Moscow).

1.6 Coup of Catherine II

Elizaveta Petrovna took care of the successor in advance, already at the very beginning of her reign, declaring her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich to them. However, brought to Russia at an early youthful age, this grandson of Peter the Great did not manage to either fall in love or get to know the country he was to rule. His impulsive nature, love for everything Prussian and frank contempt for Russian national customs, along with the lack of the makings of a statesman, frightened the Russian nobles, deprived them of confidence in tomorrow- his own and the whole country.

In 1743, Elizabeth married him to a poor German princess Sophia-August-Frederick of Anhalt-Tserbskaya, after the adoption of Orthodoxy, she was called Ekaterina Alekseevna. When their son Pavel was born in 1754, Elizabeth took him into her care, isolating him from his parents, so that he would grow up Russian in spirit. There is an assumption that Elizaveta Petrovna herself wanted to deprive the Grand Duke of her inheritance, declaring her son Pavel, who was born to them, as her successor. On the other hand, some Russian nobles, in particular Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, began to think about how instead of Peter to enthrone his wife. But Bestuzhev fell into disgrace and was exiled, and Elizabeth did not dare to carry out her intentions. December 25, 1761, when Elizabeth died, Peter III became emperor.

Peter's behavior on the throne justified the worst fears of the courtiers. He behaved like a child escaping from adult supervision, it seemed to him that, as an autocrat, everything was allowed to him. Rumors spread throughout the capital, and throughout the country, about the tsar's intentions to replace Orthodoxy with Protestantism, and the Russian guardsmen with Holsteins. The society condemned the hasty conclusion of peace with Prussia, the emperor's ostentatious Prusophilia and his plans to start a war with Denmark. And almost from the first days of his reign, a conspiracy began to mature around him, headed by his wife Catherine.

Peter III and Catherine had a difficult relationship and were unhappy in marriage. Catherine became close to the officer Grigory Grigorievich Orlov. Soon a circle of devoted people formed around her, led by the Orlov brothers, in which by 1756 a conspiracy had matured to seize power and transfer the throne to Catherine. The conspiracy was fueled by rumors about the intention of the ill Elizabeth to leave the throne to Paul, and send Catherine and her husband to Holstein. The conspiracy was supported by the British ambassador. After the accession to the throne of Peter III, the conspiracy continued to grow and deepen. The coup was scheduled for the beginning of July 1762. But the denouement came earlier, when Peter III, preparing for the war with Denmark, ordered the guards to go to Finland. The guards were not informed about the purpose of the campaign, she decided that the conspiracy had been discovered and they wanted to remove her from the capital. Peter III really found out about the conspiracy, Grigory Orlov was arrested. On June 29, Peter III tried to hide in Kronstadt, but the fortress did not accept him, having met him with fire.

In the meantime, on June 28 at 6 o'clock in the morning, Alexei Orlov appeared in Peterhof to Catherine and said that the plot had been discovered. Catherine hurried to St. Petersburg to the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Other guardsmen joined her and proclaimed her autocrat. They brought Paul here. In the presence of nobles, Catherine was solemnly proclaimed empress and her son heir. From the cathedral she went to the Winter Palace, where the members of the Senate and the Synod took the oath.

Meanwhile, on the morning of June 28, Peter III arrived with his retinue from Oranienbaum to Peterhof and discovered the disappearance of his wife. Soon it became known about what happened in St. Petersburg. The emperor still had forces loyal to him, and if he had shown determination, perhaps he would have been able to turn the tide of events. But Peter hesitated and only after much deliberation decided to try to land in Kronstadt. By this time, however, Admiral I.L., sent by Catherine, was already there. Talyzin and the emperor had to return to Peterhof, and then he had no choice but to sign his abdication. Peter III was seized and taken to the manor (farm) Ropsha, 20 km from Oranienbaum, guarded by Alexei Orlov and other officers. At dinner, the conspirators poisoned him, and then strangled him in front of a servant who came running to the cry. The subjects were informed of the death of the emperor from a "hemorrhoidal attack."

Having seized the throne, Catherine II continued Peter's policy of creating a strong absolutist state, claiming the role of an "enlightened monarch".

1.7 Failed plots against Catherine II

Thus began the 34-year reign of Catherine II. More than once during this time, especially in the early years, new coups were attempted (the most serious of them was an attempt by V.Ya. Mirovich in 1764 to free Ivan Antonovich from the Shlisselburg fortress), but they all failed in 1796, when Catherine died, on Emperor Paul I ascended the Russian throne.

In many character traits, he resembled his father: he was also quick-tempered, impulsive, unpredictable, despotic. Like 34 years earlier, the courtiers, dignitaries and generals did not know what awaited them tomorrow: a meteoric rise or disgrace. The tsar’s passion for military affairs, his desire to impose Prussian orders and cane discipline in the army caused sharp rejection among the military, and this time not only in the guard, but throughout the army. So, for example, an anti-government circle, consisting of officers, existed in Smolensk, but was uncovered. When dissatisfaction with the tyrant king became universal, new conspiracy against Paul matured in Petersburg. The conspirators enlisted the support of Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, apparently promising him that they would not cause physical harm to Paul and would only force him to sign the abdication. On the night of March 11, 1801, a group of officers, meeting almost no resistance, broke into the emperor's chambers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle. Frightened to death, they found Pavel hiding behind a screen. A dispute ensued: the emperor was required to abdicate in favor of Alexander, but he refused. And then the excited conspirators attacked Paul. One of them hit him on the temple with a golden snuffbox, the other began to choke him with a scarf. Soon it was all over.

2. Difference between state and palace coup

Some historians are inclined to consider the uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825 as an attempt at a coup. Indeed, soldiers and officers of regiments stationed in the capital, mostly guards, also took part in it. However, the leaders of the rebels sought not only to replace one autocrat with another, but to change the political system of Russia. And this is the fundamental difference. If the plans of the Decembrists had been realized, then this would, of course, be the result of a coup, but not a palace coup, but a state coup. However, there is no clear boundary between these two concepts. And if the overthrow of Menshikov in 1728 was clearly a palace coup, then these events can also be considered state coups.

For a long time it was believed that the "epoch of palace coups" in Russia in the 18th century. was generated by the decree of Peter I of 1722, which left the autocrats to choose their own heir. However, this is not true. One of the reasons is that after the death of Peter II, there were no direct male heirs in the royal family and different family members could claim the throne with equal rights. But more importantly, the coups were a kind of manifestation public opinion and even more than that - an indicator of the maturity of Russian society, which was a direct consequence of Peter's reforms at the beginning of the century. Thus, in 1741 there was widespread dissatisfaction with the inactivity of the government and the "dominance of foreigners", in 1762 and 1801 the Russian people did not want to put up with petty tyrants on the throne. And although the guardsmen always acted as direct executors of the conspiracies, they expressed the mood of much wider sections of the population, because information about what was happening in the palace was widely disseminated throughout St. Petersburg through palace servants, sentry soldiers, etc. In autocratic Russia there were no ways of expressing public opinion, which are in countries with a democratic political system, and therefore public opinion was expressed through palace and state coups - in such a peculiar and even ugly way. From this point of view, it becomes clear that the widely held opinion that the guardsmen acted only in the interests of a handful of nobles is not true.

3. Russia in the era of Catherine II: enlightened absolutism

The long reign of Catherine II is filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The "golden age of the Russian nobility" was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the "Instruction" and the Legislative Commission side by side with the persecution of N.I. Novikov and A.N. Radishchev. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own super-task. It was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia (A.B. Kamensky).

The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers, or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II) and others. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction between the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the established order of things (estate system, despotism, lack of rights, etc.) and the inadmissibility of upheavals, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility .

Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, the poor empress, are on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the question of the serfs is highly indicative. There is no doubt about the negative attitude of the empress to serfdom. She often thought about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflections. Catherine II was clearly aware that the elimination of serfdom would be indignantly perceived by the nobles, and the peasant masses, ignorant and in need of guidance, would not be able to use the granted freedom for their own benefit. Serfdom legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landlords.

The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

convocation and activity of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768). The goal was to develop a new code of laws, which was intended to replace the Cathedral Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Legislative Commission. By the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous "Order", in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other enlighteners. It spoke about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and the well-being of the people. The activities of the commission did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies failed to rise above the narrow interests of the estates and did not show much zeal in formulating reforms. In December 1768, the empress dissolved the Legislative Commission and did not create more similar institutions;

reform of the administrative-territorial division Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 counties (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial administration was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, provincial government exercising executive power, the Treasury (collecting taxes, spending them), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built according to a strictly estate principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917;

the adoption in 1785 of the Letter of Complaint to the nobility, which secured all the estate rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, transfer them by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);

the adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities, which formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople. The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited self-government rights, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;

the adoption in 1775 of the manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which the permission of government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;

reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of government, serfdom, the estate system remained unshakable. Pugachev's peasant war, the storming of the Bastille and the execution of the king Louis XVI did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently, in the 90s. and completely stopped. Persecution A.N. Radishchev, N.I. Novikov were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the "golden age of Catherine II."

And, nevertheless, it was in this era that the Free Economic Society appeared, free printing houses worked, there was a heated journal debate, in which the Empress personally participated, the Hermitage and the Public Library in St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and pedagogical schools in both capitals were founded. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the estates, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Conclusion

The last time the guards regiments said their weighty word was in 1762, when Peter III, the official heir to Elizabeth Petrovna, was deposed from the throne, and his wife was proclaimed Empress Catherine II.

Power passed from one hand to another whimsically and unpredictably. The capital guards, at their own discretion, decided to whom to transfer the throne and crown. There is nothing surprising in the fact that the nobility managed to achieve the fulfillment of many of their desires. Distinctions between patrimony and estate disappeared, the landownership rights of the nobles were guaranteed. Ownership of serfs became a class privilege of the nobility, it received enormous judicial and police power over the peasants, the right to exile them to Siberia without trial, to sell them without land. The term of military service was limited to 25 years, established cadet corps, noble youths could enroll in regiments and not start serving as soldiers. The apogee was the manifesto of Peter III on the freedom of the nobility, which freed the nobles from compulsory service. Elements of "enlightened absolutism" can be seen in the policies of all the monarchs of Russia in the 18th century. Especially brightly "enlightened absolutism" manifested itself under Catherine II. Catherine did not like music and singing, but she was well educated, knew the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, read modern philosophers, corresponded with the French enlighteners Voltaire and Diderot. She hoped through legislative reforms to eliminate the contradictions between estates and classes.

Catherine II was unable to overcome irreconcilable social contradictions. "Enlightened absolutism" of Paul I, his attempts to mitigate serfdom ended in the death of the reformer. In the second half of the XVIII century. all aspirations for a radical reorganization of the state crashed against its very foundation - serfdom and the fierce resistance of the nobility.

List of used literature

1. Gavrilov B.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: A manual for university students / B.I. Gavrilov. - M.: Publishing house "New Wave", 1998.

2. Grinin L.E. History of Russia: A guide for applicants to universities in 4 parts / L.E. Grinin. - M.: Ed. "Teacher", 1995.

G. arrested him. The all-powerful temporary worker was recently exiled to the Siberian city of Pelym. Anna Leopoldovna, the emperor's mother, became the ruler. But a year later, on the night of November 25, 1741, a new palace coup followed. Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Elizaveta Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter the Great, became Empress. Anna Leopoldovna was arrested, Osterman was exiled to Berezov, where at one time ...

Funds were often used unproductively, they lived without thinking about tomorrow. TOPIC 48. INTERNAL POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE II QUARTER OF THE XIX CENTURY. 1. Basic political principles Nikolaev reign II quarter XIX in. entered the history of Russia as the "Nikolaev era" or even "the era of the Nikolaev reaction." The most important slogan of Nicholas I, who was on...

For the annexation of new lands, and in the struggle for power within the grand-ducal family (the struggle of Elena Voloshanka and Sophia Paleolog). To study the methods of political struggle in the XVII-VII centuries, it is necessary, by analyzing the facts known in excess, to trace the change in the addressees addressed by the opposing sides, as well as the plots used to create the necessary public opinion. One more...

Estates to take over local government, to become the government class in the provinces. In April 1785, letters of commendation to the nobility and cities were issued, which formalized the estate system of the Russian Empire. "Charter to the nobility" finally consolidated and formalized all his class rights and privileges. The "Letter of Letters to the Cities" fixed the class structure of the city's population, which ...

The era of palace coups

The era of palace coups is considered the time from 1725 to 1862 - approximately 37 years. In 1725, Peter I died, without transferring the throne to anyone, after which a struggle for power began, which was marked by a number of palace coups.

The author of the term "palace coups" is the historian IN. Klyuchevsky. He designated another time period for this phenomenon in Russian history: 1725-1801, since in 1801 the last palace coup in the Russian Empire took place, ending with the death of Paul I and the accession of Alexander I Pavlovich.

To understand the reason for the series of palace coups of the 18th century, one should return to the era of Peter I, or rather, to 1722, when he issued the Decree on the succession to the throne. The decree abolished the custom of transferring the royal throne to direct descendants in the male line and provided for the appointment of an heir to the throne at the will of the monarch. Peter I issued a Decree on the succession to the throne due to the fact that his son, Tsarevich Alexei, was not a supporter of the reforms he was carrying out and grouped the opposition around him. After the death of Alexei in 1718, Peter I was not going to transfer power to his grandson Peter Alekseevich, fearing for the future of his reforms, but he himself did not have time to appoint a successor.

N. Ge "Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof"

After his death, his widow was proclaimed empress Catherine I, which relied on one of the court groups.

Catherine I occupied the Russian throne for a little over two years, she left a will: she appointed Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich as her successor and outlined in detail the order of succession to the throne, and all copies of the Decree on succession to the throne under Peter II Alekseevich were confiscated.

But Peter II died, also without leaving a will and heir, and then the Supreme Privy Council (established in February 1726 with members: Field Marshal His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, General Admiral Count Fyodor Matveevich Apraksin, State Chancellor Count Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin, Count Peter Andreevich Tolstoy, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Golitsyn, Baron Andrei Ivanovich Osterman, and then Duke Karl Friedrich Holstein - as we can see, almost all the "chicks of Petrov's nest") were elected empress Anna Ioannovna.

Before her death, she appointed her successor John Antonovich, also describing in detail the further line of inheritance.

Deposed John Elizaveta Petrovna relied in substantiating her rights to the throne on the will of Catherine I.

A few years later, her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich was appointed Elizabeth's heir ( Peter III), after the accession to the throne of which his son became the heir PaulI Petrovich.

But soon after that, as a result of a coup, power passed to the wife of Peter III Catherine II, referring to the "will of all subjects", while Paul remained the heir, although Catherine, according to a number of data, considered the option of depriving him of the right to inherit.

Having ascended the throne, in 1797, on the day of his coronation, Paul I published the Manifesto on the succession to the throne, compiled by him and his wife Maria Feodorovna during the life of Catherine. According to this manifesto, which canceled Peter's decree, "the heir was determined by the law itself" - Paul's intention was to exclude in the future the situation of removal of legitimate heirs from the throne and the exclusion of arbitrariness.

But the new principles of succession to the throne for a long time were not perceived not only by the nobility, but even by members of the imperial family: after the assassination of Paul in 1801, his widow Maria Feodorovna, who drafted the Manifesto of Succession with him, cried out: “I want to reign!”. The manifesto of Alexander I on accession to the throne also contained the Petrine wording: “and his Imperial Majesty’s heir, who will be appointed”, despite the fact that, according to the law, Alexander’s heir was his brother Konstantin Pavlovich, who secretly renounced this right, which also contradicted the Manifesto of Paul I.

The Russian succession to the throne stabilized only after the accession to the throne of Nicholas I. Here is such a long preamble. And now in order. So, EkaterinaI, PeterII, Anna Ioannovna, Ioann Antonovich, Elizaveta Petrovna, PeterIII, CatherineII, PavelI…

EkaterinaI

Catherine I. Portrait of an unknown artist

PeterII Alekseevich

Emperor of All Russia, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Charlotte-Sophia of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel, grandson of Peter I and Evdokia Lopukhina. He was born on October 12, 1715. He lost his mother at the age of 10, and his father fled to Vienna with the serf of his teacher N. Vyazemsky, Efrosinya Fedorovna. Peter I returned the recalcitrant son, forced him to renounce the right to the throne and sentenced him to death. There is a version that Alexei Petrovich was strangled in the Peter and Paul Fortress without waiting for her execution.

Peter I did not care about his grandson, as he assumed in him, as in his son, an opponent of reforms, an adherent of the old Moscow way of life. taught little Peter not just “something and somehow”, but also anyone, therefore, he practically did not receive education at the time of accession to the throne.

I. Wedekind "Portrait of Peter II"

But Menshikov had his own plans: he convinced Catherine I in her will to appoint Peter as heir, and after her death he ascended the throne. Menshikov betrothed him to his daughter Maria (Peter was only 12 years old), moved him to his house and actually began to run the state himself, regardless of the opinion of the Supreme Privy Council. Baron A. Osterman, as well as Academician Goldbach and Archbishop F. Prokopovich, were appointed to train the young emperor. Osterman was a clever diplomat and a talented teacher, he captivated Peter with his witty lessons, but at the same time set him up against Menshikov (the struggle for power in a different version! Osterman “put” on Dolgoruky: a foreigner in Russia, albeit crowned with the glory of a skilled diplomat, can manage its policy only in close alliance with the Russians). It all ended with the fact that Peter II removed Menshikov from power, taking advantage of his illness, deprived him of his ranks and fortune, and exiled him with his family, first to the Ryazan province, and then to Berezov, Tobolsk province.

So, the mighty Menshikov fell, but the struggle for power continued - now, as a result of intrigues, the princes Dolgoruky get the championship, who involve Peter in a wild life, revelry, and, having learned about his passion for hunting, take him away from the capital for many weeks.

On February 24, 1728, the coronation of Peter II takes place, but he is still far from state affairs. Dolgoruky betrothed him to Princess Ekaterina Dolgoruky, the wedding was scheduled for January 19, 1730, but he caught a cold, fell ill with smallpox and died on the morning of the proposed wedding, he was only 15 years old. So the Romanov family was cut off in the male line.

What can be said about the personality of Peter II? Let's listen to the historian N. Kostomarov: “Peter II did not reach the age when a person's personality is determined. Although contemporaries praised his abilities, natural mind and kind heart, but these were only hopes for a good future. His behavior did not give the right to expect from him in time a good ruler of the state. He not only disliked teaching and deeds, but hated both; nothing fascinated him in the state sphere; he was completely absorbed in fun, being all the time under someone's influence.

During his reign, the Supreme Privy Council was mainly in power.

Board results: decrees on streamlining the collection of poll tax from the population (1727); restoration of the hetman's power in Little Russia; promulgation of the Bill Charter; ratified a trade agreement with China.

Anna Ioannovna

L. Caravak "Portrait of Anna Ioannovna"

After the untimely death of Peter II, the issue of succession to the throne is again on the agenda. There was an attempt to enthrone the bride of Peter II, Catherine Dolgoruky, but she was unsuccessful. Then the Golitsyns, rivals of the Dolgoruky, put forward their own candidate - the niece of Peter I, Anna of Kurland. But Anna came to power by signing the terms. What is it - the "conditions" (conditions) of Anna Ioannovna?

This is an act that was drawn up by the members of the Supreme Privy Council and which Anna Ioannovna had to fulfill: not to marry, not to appoint an heir, not to have the right to declare war and conclude peace, introduce new taxes, reward and punish subordinate high officials. The main author of the conditions was Dmitry Golitsyn, but the document, drawn up immediately after the death of Peter II, was read out only on February 2, 1730, so the bulk of the nobility could only guess about its content and be content with rumors and assumptions. When the conditions were made public, there was a split among the nobility. On January 25, Anna signed the conditions proposed to her, but when she arrived in Moscow, she accepted a deputation of opposition nobles, concerned about the strengthening of the power of the Supreme Privy Council, and with the help of officers of the guards regiments, on February 28, 1730, she swore the nobility as a Russian autocrat, and also publicly refused from conditions. On March 4, she abolishes the Supreme Privy Council, and on April 28 she solemnly crowns herself and appoints her favorite E. Biron as chief chamberlain. The era of Bironovism begins.

A few words about the personality of Anna Ioannovna.

She was born on January 28, 1693, was the fourth daughter of Tsar Ivan V (brother and co-ruler of Peter I) and Tsarina Praskovya Feodorovna Saltykova, granddaughter of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. She was brought up in an extremely unfavorable environment: her father was a weak-minded person, and she did not get along with her mother from early childhood. Anna was haughty and not of a high mind. Her teachers could not even teach the girl to write correctly, but she achieved "bodily well-being." Peter I, guided by political interests, married his niece to the Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm, the nephew of the Prussian king. Their marriage took place on October 31, 1710 in St. Petersburg, in the palace of Prince Menshikov, and after that the couple spent a long time in feasts in the capital of Russia. But, as soon as he left St. Petersburg for his possessions at the beginning of 1711, Friedrich-Wilhelm died on the way to Mitava - as they suspected, due to immoderate excesses. So, not having time to be a wife, Anna becomes a widow and moves to her mother in the village of Izmailovo near Moscow, and then to St. Petersburg. But in 1716, by order of Peter I, she left for permanent residence in Courland.

And now she is the All-Russian Empress. Her reign, according to the historian V. Klyuchevsky, “is one of the dark pages of our empire, and the darkest spot on it is the empress herself. Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened during her early widowhood amid diplomatic intrigues and court adventures in Courland, she brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and entertainment. Her courtyard was full of luxury and bad taste and was filled with crowds of jesters, tricksters, buffoons, storytellers ... Lazhechnikov tells about her "amusements" in the book "Ice House". She loved horseback riding and hunting, in Peterhof in her room there were always loaded guns ready for shooting from the window at flying birds, and in the Winter Palace they specially arranged an arena for her, where they drove wild animals, which she shot.

She was completely unprepared to govern the state, besides, she did not have the slightest desire to govern it. But she surrounded herself with foreigners completely dependent on her, who, according to V. Klyuchevsky, "fell down into Russia, like cheese from a holey bag, stuck around the courtyard, sat down on the throne, climbed into all profitable places in management."

Portrait of E. Biron. Unknown artist

All affairs under Anna Ioannovna were run by her favorite E. Biron. The cabinet of ministers created by Osterman was subordinate to him. The army was commanded by Munnich and Lassi, and the yard was commanded by the bribe taker and passionate gambler Count Levenvold. In April 1731, a secret investigative office (torture chamber) began to work, supporting the authorities with denunciations and torture.

Board results: the position of the nobility was significantly facilitated - they were assigned the exclusive right to own peasants; military service lasted 25 years, and by a manifesto of 1736, one of the sons, at the request of his father, was allowed to stay at home to manage the household and train him in order to be fit for civil service.

In 1731, the law on single inheritance was repealed.

In 1732, the first cadet corps was opened to educate the nobility.

The subjugation of Poland continued: the Russian army under the command of Minich took Danzig, while losing more than 8 thousand of our soldiers.

In 1736-1740. there was a war with Turkey. The reason for it was the constant raids of the Crimean Tatars. As a result of the campaigns of Lassi, who took Azov in 1739, and Minikh, who captured Perekop and Ochakov in 1736, won a victory at Stauchany in 1739, after which Moldavia accepted Russian citizenship, the Belgrade peace was concluded. As a result of all these military operations, Russia lost about 100 thousand people, but still did not have the right to keep a navy in the Black Sea, and could only use Turkish ships for trade.

To keep the royal court in luxury, it was necessary to introduce raids, extortionate expeditions. Many representatives of ancient noble families were executed or sent into exile: Dolgorukovs, Golitsyns, Yusupovs and others. Chancellor A.P. Volynsky, together with like-minded people, in 1739 drew up a "Project for the Correction of State Affairs", which contained demands for the protection of the Russian nobility from the dominance of foreigners. According to Volynsky, the government in the Russian Empire should be monarchical with the broad participation of the nobility as the dominant class in the state. The next governmental instance after the monarch should be the senate (as it was under Peter the Great); then comes the lower government, from representatives of the lower and middle nobility. Estates: spiritual, urban and peasant - received, according to Volynsky's project, significant privileges and rights. All were required to be literate, and the clergy and nobility were required to have a broader education, the hotbeds of which were to serve as academies and universities. Many reforms were also proposed to improve justice, finance, trade, etc. For this they paid with execution. Moreover, Volynsky was sentenced to a very cruel execution: to put him alive on a stake, having previously cut out his tongue; to quarter his like-minded people and then cut off their heads; confiscate the estates and exile Volynsky's two daughters and son into eternal exile. But then the sentence was reduced: three were beheaded, and the rest were exiled.

Shortly before her death, Anna Ioannovna learned that her niece Anna Leopoldovna had a son, and declared the two-month-old baby Ivan Antonovich the heir to the throne, and before he came of age, she appointed E. Biron as regent, who at the same time received “power and authority to manage all state affairs as internal, as well as foreign ones.

IvanVI Antonovich: Biron's regency - Minich's coup

Ivan VI Antonovich and Anna Leopoldovna

Biron's regency lasted about three weeks. Having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight with Munnich, and in addition, spoils relations with Anna Leopoldovna and her husband Anton Ulrich. On the night of November 7-8, 1740, another palace coup took place, organized by Munnich. Biron was arrested and sent into exile in the province of Tobolsk, and the regency passed to Anna Leopoldovna. She recognized herself as the ruler, but did not take an actual part in state affairs. According to contemporaries, "... she was not stupid, but she was disgusted with any serious occupation." Anna Leopoldovna constantly quarreled and did not speak to her husband for weeks, who, in her opinion, “had a good heart, but no mind.” And disagreements between spouses naturally created the conditions for court intrigues in the struggle for power. Taking advantage of the carelessness of Anna Leopoldovna and the dissatisfaction of Russian society with the continued German dominance, Elizaveta Petrovna enters the game. With the help of the guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment devoted to her, she arrested Anna Leopoldovna along with her family and decided to send them abroad. But the chamber-page A. Turchaninov made an attempt to make a counter-coup in favor of Ivan VI, and then Elizaveta Petrovna changed her mind: she arrested the entire family of Anna Leopoldovna and sent him to Ranenburg (near Ryazan). In 1744, they were taken to Kholmogory, and at the direction of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Ivan VI was isolated from his family and, 12 years later, secretly transferred to Shlisselburg, where he was kept in solitary confinement under the name of a "famous prisoner."

In 1762, Peter III secretly examined the former emperor. He disguised himself as an officer and entered the casemates where the prince was kept. He saw “a rather tolerable dwelling, and sparsely furnished with the poorest furniture. The prince's clothes were also very poor. He was completely clueless and spoke incoherently. Either he claimed that he was Emperor John, then he assured that the emperor was no more in the world, and his spirit passed into him ... ".

Under Catherine II, his guards were instructed to persuade the prince to monasticism, but in case of danger, "kill the prisoner, and not give the living into the hands of anyone." Lieutenant V. Mirovich, who learned the secret of the secret prisoner, tried to free Ivan Antonovich and proclaim him emperor. But the guards followed the instructions. The body of Ivan VI was exhibited for a week in the Shlisselburg fortress "for news and worship of the people", and then buried in Tikhvin in the Bogoroditsky Monastery.

Anna Leopoldovna died in 1747 from childbed fever, and Catherine II allowed Anton Ulrich to leave for her homeland, since he did not pose a danger to her, not being a member of the Romanov family. But he refused the offer and stayed with the children in Kholmogory. But their fate is sad: Catherine II, after strengthening the dynasty with the birth of two grandchildren, allowed the children of Anna Leopoldovna to move to her aunt, the dowager queen of Denmark and Norway. But, as N. Eidelman writes, “ironically, they lived in their homeland - in prison, and then abroad - in freedom. But they yearned for that prison in their homeland, not knowing any language other than Russian.”

Empress Elizabeth Petrovna

S. van Loo "Portrait of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna"

PeterIII Fedorovich

A.K. Pfantzelt "Portrait of Peter III"

Read about it on our website:.

EkaterinaII Alekseevna the Great

A. Antropov "Catherine II the Great"

Empress of All Russia. Before the adoption of Orthodoxy - Princess Sophia-Frederica-Augusta. She was born in Stettin, where her father, Christian-August, Duke of Anhalt-Zerbst-Bernburg, at that time served as a major general in the Prussian army. Her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, for some reason disliked the girl, so Sophia (Fike, as her family called her) lived in Hamburg with her grandmother from early childhood. She received a mediocre upbringing, tk. the family was in constant need, its teachers were random people. The girl did not stand out for any talents, except for a penchant for command and for boyish games. Fike was secretive and prudent from childhood. By a happy coincidence, during a trip to Russia in 1744, at the invitation of Elizabeth Petrovna, she became the bride of the future Russian Tsar Peter III Fedorovich.

Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During a serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her "English comrade" H. Williams that one should only wait for the death of the Empress. But Elizabeth Petrovna died only in 1761, and her legitimate heir, Peter III, husband of Catherine II, ascended the throne.

Teachers of the Russian language and the Law of God were assigned to the princess, she showed enviable perseverance in learning in order to prove her love for a foreign country and adapt to a new life. But the first years of her life in Russia were very difficult, besides, she experienced neglect from her husband and courtiers. But the desire to become a Russian empress outweighed the bitterness of trials. She adapted to the tastes of the Russian court, only one thing was missing - an heir. And that is exactly what was expected of her. After two unsuccessful pregnancies she finally gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I. But by order of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was immediately separated from his mother, showing for the first time only after 40 days. Elizaveta Petrovna herself raised her grandson, and Catherine took up self-education: she read a lot, and not only novels - her interests included historians and philosophers: Tacitus, Montesquieu, Voltaire, etc. Thanks to her diligence and perseverance, she was able to achieve respect for herself, with her not only well-known Russian politicians, but also foreign ambassadors began to be considered. In 1761, her husband, Peter III, ascended the throne, but he was unpopular in society, and then Catherine, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky, Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, overthrew her husband from the throne in 1762. She also stopped attempts to appoint her regent under her son Pavel , which N. Panin and E. Dashkova sought, and got rid of Ivan VI. Read more about the reign of Catherine II on our website:

Known as an enlightened queen, Catherine II was unable to achieve love and understanding from her own son. In 1794, despite the opposition of the courtiers, she decided to remove Paul from the throne in favor of her beloved grandson Alexander. But a sudden death in 1796 prevented her from achieving what she wanted.

Emperor of All Russia PavelI Petrovich

S. Schukin "Portrait of Emperor Paul I"

Thus, Peter I himself provoked a crisis of power, because. did not appoint an heir to the throne. And after his death, many direct and indirect heirs claimed the Russian throne.

Each of the groups defended its class interests and privileges, which means that it nominated and supported its own candidate for the throne. One should not discount the active position of the guard, which was brought up by Peter I as a privileged part of society, the absolute passivity of the people, who did not delve into political life.

Immediately after the death of Peter I, two groups of conspirators were determined, seeking to see their protege on the throne: the most influential people of the Peter the Great era - Andrei Osterman and Alexander Menshikov - had the goal of enthroning the wife of Emperor Peter I, Ekaterina Alekseevna. The second group, inspired by the Duke of Holstein (Anna Petrovna's husband), wanted to see the grandson of Peter I, Peter Alekseevich, on the throne.

In the end, thanks to the decisive actions of Osterman-Menshikov, it was possible to enthrone Catherine.

N. Ge "Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof"

After his death, his widow was proclaimed empress Catherine I, which relied on one of the court groups.

Before her death, she appointed her successor John Antonovich, also describing in detail the further line of inheritance.

Deposed John Elizaveta Petrovna relied in substantiating her rights to the throne on the will of Catherine I.

A few years later, her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich was appointed Elizabeth's heir ( Peter III), after the accession to the throne of which his son became the heir PaulI Petrovich.

EkaterinaI

Catherine I. Portrait of an unknown artist

Ekaterina Alekseevna

V.M. Tormosov "Peter I and Catherine"

Her origin is not very clear, there are many assumptions, but one thing is known: in Catholic baptism, her name was Martha (Skavronskaya), she was not born into a noble family and belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. She was brought up by the Protestant theologian and learned linguist Gluck in the city of Marienburg (now the city of Aluksne in Latvia). She did not receive an education, and in the pastor's family she played the role of a girl in the kitchen and laundry.

In August 1702 ( North War) Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev besieged the fortress of Marinburg. A game of chance: Marta Skavronskaya was among the prisoners! She was 18 years old, the soldier who captured her sold the girl to a non-commissioned officer ... And he “gave” her to B.P. Sheremetev, for whom she was a concubine and laundress. Then she went to A. Menshikov, and then to Peter I. Peter saw her at Menshikov's - and was captivated by her: not only her magnificent and graceful forms, but also her briskness, witty answers to his questions. So Marta became the mistress of Peter I. This caused discontent among the soldiers and the people, but meanwhile they had children: by 1706 there were three of them: Peter, Pavel and daughter Anna.

She lived in the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow, adopted the Orthodox faith and the name Ekaterina Alekseevna Vasilevskaya (patronymic was given by her godfather, Tsarevich Alexei).

To everyone's surprise, Catherine had a huge influence on Peter, she became necessary for him both in difficult and joyful moments of his life - before her, Peter I did not have a personal life. Gradually, Catherine became an indispensable person for the king: she knew how to extinguish his outbursts of anger, to share the hardships of camp life. When Peter began to have severe headaches and convulsions, only she could calm him down and relieve the attack. In moments of anger, no one could approach him except Catherine, only her voice had a calming effect on him. Since 1709 they have not parted. In 1711, she even saved Peter and the army in the Prut campaign, when she gave her jewels to the Turkish vizier and persuaded him to sign a truce. Upon returning from this campaign, a wedding was played and two daughters were legalized by that time: Anna (future wife of the Duke of Holstein) and Elizabeth (future Empress Elizabeth Petrovna). In 1714, the tsar approved the Order of St. Catherine and awarded his wife with it on her name day in honor of the Prut campaign.

For 20 years of marriage, Catherine gave birth to 11 children, most of whom died in infancy, but meanwhile she was constantly with him on campaigns and in all wanderings, experienced adversity, lived in tents, even participated in reviews of troops and encouraged soldiers. But at the same time, she did not interfere in state affairs and did not show interest in power, she never started intrigues, and even sometimes stood up for those whom the king, prone to outbursts of anger, wanted to punish.

Catherine I

J.-M. Natya "Portrait of Catherine I"

On December 23, 1721, she was recognized as Empress by the Senate and Synod. Peter himself placed a crown on her head, which was more magnificent than the crown of the king. This event took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. It is believed that Peter was going to make Catherine his successor, but she got herself a lover, Willy Mons, and when Peter found out about this, he ordered the execution of Mons, and his relationship with Catherine began to deteriorate. The betrayal of the woman he loved so much undermined his health. In addition, now he could not entrust the throne to her, fearing for the future of the great work that he was doing. Soon Peter fell ill and took to his bed completely. Catherine was always at the bedside of her dying husband. Peter died on January 28, 1725, without naming a successor.

The young grandson Peter Alekseevich (son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei), daughter Elizabeth and Peter's nieces could claim the throne. Catherine had no grounds for the throne.

On the day of Peter's death, senators, members of the Synod and the generals (officials belonging to the first four classes of the table of ranks) gathered to decide on the issue of succession to the throne. Princes Golitsyn, Repnin, Dolgorukov recognized the grandson of Peter I as the direct male heir. Apraksin, Menshikov and Tolstoy insisted on the proclamation of Ekaterina Alekseevna as the ruling empress.

But unexpectedly, in the morning, guards officers entered the hall where the meeting was taking place and ultimatum demanded the accession of Catherine. On the square in front of the palace, two guards regiments lined up under arms, which expressed support for the empress by drumming. This ended the dispute. Catherine was recognized as empress.

The grandson of Peter I by his first marriage, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, was declared the heir to the throne.

Thus, a foreign woman of simple origin was enthroned under the name of Catherine I, who became the wife of the tsar on very dubious legal grounds.

The historian S. Solovyov wrote that “the famous Livonian captive belonged to the number of those people who seem capable of ruling until they accept the ruling. Under Peter, she did not shine with her own light, but with a light borrowed from the great man, whom she was a companion.

The era of A.D. Menshikov

Catherine did not know how to govern the state and did not want to. All the time she spent in magnificent feasts and festivities. Power actually passed to A.D. Menshikov. According to his instructions, V. Bering's expedition was sent to resolve the issue of whether Asia is connected to America by a strait; the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened, the creation of which was prepared by the actions of Peter I; the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky "For Labor and the Fatherland" was established - all this happened in 1725.

In 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was established, which consisted of 6 people headed by A.D. Menshikov. In fact, he led the country, because during the three months of her reign, Catherine only learned to sign papers without looking. She was far from state affairs. Here is an excerpt from the memoirs of Y. Lefort: “There is no way to determine the behavior of this court. The day turns into night, everything stands still, nothing is done ... Everywhere there are intrigues, searching, decay ... Holidays, drinking parties, walks occupied all her time. On solemn days, she appeared in all her splendor and beauty, in a golden carriage. It was so breathtakingly beautiful. Power, glory, the delight of loyal subjects - what else could she dream of? But… sometimes the empress, having enjoyed her fame, went down to the kitchen and, as it is written in the court journal, “cooked in the kitchen herself.”

But Catherine did not have to rule for long. Balls, feasts, festivities and revels, which followed continuously, undermined her health. She died on May 6, 1727, 2 years and three months after her accession to the throne, at the age of 43.

Conclusion

She intended to transfer the reign to her daughter Elizabeth Petrovna, but before her death, she signed a will on the transfer of the throne to the grandson of Peter I, Peter II Alekseevich, which Menshikov insisted on. He had his own plan: to marry his daughter Maria to him. Peter II by that time was only 11.5 years old. The daughters of Peter I Anna and Elizabeth were declared regents under the young emperor until his 16th birthday.

Catherine I was buried next to Peter I and his daughter Natalya Petrovna in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Catherine did not actually rule Russia, but she was loved by the common people because she knew how to sympathize and help the unfortunate.

The state of affairs in the state after her reign was deplorable: embezzlement, abuse, and arbitrariness flourished. In the last year of her life, she spent more than six million rubles on her whims, while there was no money in the state treasury. What reforms

PeterII Alekseevich

Peter I did not care about his grandson, as he assumed in him, as in his son, an opponent of reforms, an adherent of the old Moscow way of life. Little Peter was taught not just “something and somehow”, but also anyone, so he practically did not receive education by the time he ascended the throne.

I. Wedekind "Portrait of Peter II"

V. Surikov "Menshikov in Berezov"

He died in Berezov. His daughter Maria also died there at the age of 18. After some time, Peter II declared himself an opponent of Peter's reforms and liquidated all the institutions he had created.

During his reign, the Supreme Privy Council was mainly in power.

Anna Ioannovna

L. Caravak "Portrait of Anna Ioannovna"

A few words about the personality of Anna Ioannovna.

Portrait of E. Biron. Unknown artist

In 1731, the law on single inheritance was repealed.

In 1732, the first cadet corps was opened to educate the nobility.

The subjugation of Poland continued: the Russian army under the command of Minich took Danzig, while losing more than 8 thousand of our soldiers.

To keep the royal court in luxury, it was necessary to introduce raids, extortionate expeditions. Many representatives of ancient noble families were executed or sent into exile: Dolgorukovs, Golitsyns, Yusupovs and others. Chancellor A.P. Volynsky, together with like-minded people, in 1739 drew up a "Project for the Correction of State Affairs", which contained demands for the protection of the Russian nobility from the dominance of foreigners. According to Volynsky, the government in the Russian Empire should be monarchical with the broad participation of the nobility as the dominant class in the state. The next governmental instance after the monarch should be the senate (as it was under Peter the Great); then comes the lower government, from representatives of the lower and middle nobility. Estates: spiritual, urban and peasant - received, according to the project of Volynsky, significant privileges and rights. All were required to be literate, and the clergy and nobility were required to have a broader education, the hotbeds of which were to serve as academies and universities. Many reforms were also proposed to improve justice, finance, trade, etc. For this they paid with execution. Moreover, Volynsky was sentenced to a very cruel execution: to put him alive on a stake, having previously cut out his tongue; to quarter his like-minded people and then cut off their heads; confiscate the estates and exile Volynsky's two daughters and son into eternal exile. But then the sentence was reduced: three were beheaded, and the rest were exiled.

IvanVI Antonovich: Biron's regency - Minich's coup

Ivan VI Antonovich and Anna Leopoldovna

Empress Elizabeth Petrovna

S. van Loo "Portrait of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna"

Read about it on our website:

PeterIII Fedorovich

A.K. Pfantzelt "Portrait of Peter III"

Read about it on our website:

EkaterinaII Alekseevna the Great

A. Antropov "Catherine II the Great"

Teachers of the Russian language and the Law of God were assigned to the princess, she showed enviable perseverance in learning in order to prove her love for a foreign country and adapt to a new life. But the first years of her life in Russia were very difficult, besides, she experienced neglect from her husband and courtiers. But the desire to become a Russian empress outweighed the bitterness of trials. She adapted to the tastes of the Russian court, only one thing was missing - an heir. And that is exactly what was expected of her. After two unsuccessful pregnancies, she finally gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I. But by order of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was immediately separated from his mother, showing for the first time only after 40 days. Elizaveta Petrovna herself raised her grandson, and Catherine took up self-education: she read a lot, and not only novels - her interests included historians and philosophers: Tacitus, Montesquieu, Voltaire, etc. Thanks to her diligence and perseverance, she was able to achieve respect for herself, with her not only well-known Russian politicians, but also foreign ambassadors began to be considered. In 1761, her husband, Peter III, ascended the throne, but he was unpopular in society, and then Catherine, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky, Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, overthrew her husband from the throne in 1762. She also stopped attempts to appoint her regent under her son Pavel , which N. Panin and E. Dashkova sought, and got rid of Ivan VI. Read more about the reign of Catherine II on our website:

Emperor of All Russia PavelI Petrovich

S. Schukin "Portrait of Emperor Paul I"

Read about it on our website.

1. general characteristics era of palace coups

The overexertion of the country's forces during the years of Peter the Great's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and the violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards the Peter's heritage and created the conditions for political instability.

From 1725, after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them were replaced on the throne. This change did not always take place in a peaceful and legal way, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky is not entirely accurate, but figuratively and aptly called " era of palace coups".

2. Background of palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called "new nobility", which had come to the fore in the years of Peter the Great thanks to their service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Palace coups were generated by a sharp struggle of various factions for power. As a rule, it came down most often to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.

At that time, the guards began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged "support" of the autocracy, which, moreover, assumed the right to control the correspondence of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her "beloved emperor" left.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism for the transfer of power,

3. The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only time to write with a weakening hand: "Give everything ...". The opinion of the leaders about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Petrov's nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy , I.I. Buturlin , P.I. Yaguzhinsky etc.) advocated for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson - Peter Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards, who supported the empress.

accession Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Furthermore, temporary worker decided to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with the young grandson of Peter. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the well-born nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovoe, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated to this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman - A clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn) began to predominate, and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because. with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs ended, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

4. Supreme Privy Council (STC)

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne, since back in 1710 she was married off by Peter to the Duke of Courland , early widowed, lived in cramped material conditions, largely at the expense of the Russian government.

It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

D.M. Golitsyn came up with the initiative to draw up really limiting autocracy " conditions ", according to which:

1) Anna undertook to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which actually turned into the highest governing body of the country.

2) Without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, it could not legislate, impose taxes, dispose of the treasury, declare war or make peace.

3) The empress did not have the right to grant estates and ranks above the rank of colonel, to deprive her of estates without trial.

4) The Guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation.

5) Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir, but in case of non-fulfillment of any of these conditions, she was deprived of the "crown of Russia".

There is no consensus among scientists in assessing the nature and significance of the "invention of the leaders." Some see in the "conditions" a desire to establish, instead of autocracy, an "oligarchic" form of government that would meet the interests of a narrow layer of noble nobility and lead Russia back to the era of "boyar self-will." Others believe that this was the first constitutional draft that limited the arbitrary rule of the despotic state created by Peter, from which all segments of the population, including the aristocracy, suffered.

Anna Ioannovna after meeting in Mitava with V.L. Dolgoruky, sent by the military-technical cooperation for negotiations, accepted these conditions without any hesitation. However, despite the desire of members of the military-technical cooperation to hide their plans, their contents became known to the guards and the general masses " nobility ".

From this environment, new projects for the political reorganization of Russia began to emerge (the most mature one belonged to the V.N. Tatishchev ), which gave the nobility the right to elect representatives of the highest authorities and expanded the composition of the military-technical cooperation. Specific requirements were also put forward aimed at facilitating the conditions of service of the nobles. D.M. Golitsyn, realizing the danger of isolating the military-technical cooperation, met these wishes and developed a new project, which suggested limiting the autocracy by a system of elected bodies. The highest of them remained the military-technical cooperation of 12 members. Previously, all issues were discussed in the Senate of 30 people, the Chamber of Nobility of 200 ordinary nobles and the Chamber of Citizens, two representatives from each city. In addition, the nobility was exempted from compulsory service.

The supporters of the inviolability of the principle of autocracy, led by A. Osterman and F. Prokopovich, who attracted the guards, managed to take advantage of the disagreements between the adherents of the constitutional restriction of the monarchy. As a result, having found support, Anna Ioannovna broke the "conditions" and restored the autocracy in full.

The reasons for the failure of the "supreme leaders" were the short-sightedness and selfishness of the majority of the MTC members, who sought to limit the monarchy not for the sake of the interests of the whole country, or even the nobility, but for the sake of preserving and expanding their own privileges. The inconsistency of actions, political inexperience and mutual suspicion of individual noble groups that acted as supporters constitutional order, but feared by their actions to strengthen the military-technical cooperation also contributed to the restoration of autocracy. The bulk of the nobility was not ready for radical political change.

The decisive word belonged to the Guard, which, after some hesitation, finally supported the idea of an unlimited monarchy.

Finally, the far-sightedness and unscrupulousness of Osterman and Prokopovich, the leaders of the party of supporters of the preservation of autocracy, played an important role.

5. Board of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of "conditions" from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, according to her decree, was equated with the signature of the empress. Dolgoruky, and later Golitsyn were repressed.

Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. For these purposes, a cadet noble corps was created, at the end of which an officer rank was awarded; it was allowed to enlist the nobles for service from infancy, which made it possible for them, upon reaching the age of majority, to receive an officer's rank "by length of service."

An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: "Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened by early widowhood ... among court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years , brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and gross entertainment".

Amusements of Anna Ioannovna cost the treasury very dearly, and although she, unlike Peter, could not stand alcohol, the maintenance of her court cost 5-6 times more. Most of all, she loved to watch jesters, among whom were representatives of the most noble families - Prince M.A. Golitsyn, Count A.P. Apraksin, Prince N.F. Volkonsky. It is possible that in this way Anna continued to take revenge on the aristocracy for her humiliation with "conditions", especially since the military-technical cooperation at one time did not allow entry into Russia to her Courland favorite - E. Biron.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, and even the ability to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.

Some historians call the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign "Bironism", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness in relation to the Russian nobility.

However, the government's course was determined by Biron's enemy, A. Osterman, and arbitrariness was rather repaired by representatives of the domestic nobility, headed by the head of the Secret Chancellery, A.I. Ushakov. Yes, and the damage to the treasury of the Russian nobles inflicted no less than foreigners.

Favorite, hoping to weaken the vice-chancellor's influence A. Osterman , managed to introduce his protege into the Cabinet of Ministers - A. Volynsky . But the new minister began to pursue an independent political course, developed a "Project for the Correction of Internal State Affairs", in which he advocated the further expansion of the privileges of the nobility and raised the issue of the dominance of foreigners. By this he aroused the discontent of Biron, who, having teamed up with Osterman, managed to get Volynsky accused of "insulting her imperial majesty" and lead him to the chopping block in 1740.

Soon Anna Ioannovna died, appointing her niece's son as his successor. Anna Leopoldovna , Duchess of Brunswick, baby Ivan Antonovich under Biron's regency.

In the context of general dissatisfaction of the nobility and especially the guard, which the regent tried to disband, the head of the military collegium, field marshal Minich staged another coup d'état. But Minich himself, famous for the words: "The Russian state has the advantage over others that it is controlled by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to explain how it exists", soon did not calculate own forces and was retired, missing Osterman in first place.

6. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761)

On November 25, 1741, the "daughter" of Peter the Great, relying on the support of the guards, carried out another coup d'état and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that Elizaveta Petrovna had broad support ordinary people of the city and the lower guards (only 17.5% of the 308 guards participants were nobles), who saw in her the daughter of Peter, all the hardships of whose reign had already been forgotten, and her personality and deeds began to be idealized. The coup of 1741, unlike the others, had a patriotic overtone, because. was directed against the dominance of foreigners.

Foreign diplomacy tried to take part in the preparation of the coup, seeking political and even territorial dividends through its assistance to Elizabeth. But all the hopes of the French ambassador Chétardie and the Swedish ambassador Nolken, in the end, were in vain. The implementation of the coup was accelerated by the fact that the ruler Anna Leopoldovna became aware of Elizabeth's meetings with foreign ambassadors, and the threat of forcible tonsure as a nun loomed over the lover of balls and entertainment.

Having seized power, Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed a return to her father's politics, but it was hardly possible for her to rise to such a level. She managed to repeat the era of the reign of the great emperor rather in form than in spirit. Elizabeth began with the restoration of the institutions created by Peter 1 and their status. By abolishing the Cabinet of Ministers, she returned to the Senate the importance of the highest government agency, restored the Berg - and Manufacture College.

Under Elizabeth, the German favorites were replaced by Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were more interested in the affairs of the country. So, with the active assistance of her young favorite I.I. Shuvalova was opened in 1755 Moscow University. At the initiative of his cousin, since the late 1740s. de facto head of government P.I. Shuvalova , in 1753 a decree was issued "on the abolition of internal customs and petty fees", which gave impetus to the development of trade and the formation of an internal all-Russian market. By decree of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744, the death penalty was actually abolished in Russia.

At the same time, its social policy was aimed at the transformation of the nobility from the service to the privileged class and fortification. She instilled luxury in every possible way, which led to a sharp increase in the expenses of the nobles for themselves and the maintenance of their court.

These expenses fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who in the era of Elizabeth finally turned into "baptized property", which, without the slightest remorse, could be sold, exchanged for a thoroughbred dog, etc. The attitude of the nobles towards the peasants as "talking cattle" was caused and ended by that time a cultural split in Russian society, as a result of which the Russian nobles, who spoke French, no longer understood their peasants. The strengthening of serfdom was expressed in the landlords obtaining the right to sell their peasants as recruits (1747), and also to exile them without trial to Siberia (1760).

In her domestic and foreign policy, Elizaveta Petrovna took into account national interests to a greater extent. In 1756, Russia, on the side of a coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony, entered the war with Prussia, supported by England. Russia's participation in " Seven Years' War "1756-1763 put the army of Frederick II on the brink of disaster.

In August 1757, in the battle of Gross-Egersdorf, the Russian army of S.F. Apraksin as a result of the successful actions of the detachment of General P.A. Rumyantseva achieved the first victory. In August 1758, General Fermor at Zorndorf, having suffered significant losses, managed to achieve a "draw" with the army of Friedrich, and in August 1759, at Kunersdorf, the troops of P.S. Saltykov defeated her.

In the autumn of 1760, Russian-Austrian troops captured Berlin, and only the death of Elizaveta Petrovna on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete catastrophe. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty with him, returning to Prussia everything lost in the war.

Despite the fact that Elizaveta Petrovna, unlike her father, used her unlimited power not so much in the interests of the state, but to satisfy her own needs and whims (after her death, 15 thousand dresses remained), she voluntarily or unwittingly prepared the country and society for next era of change. During the 20 years of her reign, the country managed to "rest" and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which came in the era of Catherine II.

7. The reign of Peter III

The nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and reverence for German. By 1742 he was an orphan. The childless Elizabeth invited him to Russia and soon appointed him her heir. In 1745 he was married to an unfamiliar and unloved Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (in Orthodoxy named Ekaterina Alekseevna).

The heir has not outlived his childhood, continuing to play tin soldiers, while Catherine was actively engaged in self-education and longed for love and power.

After the death of Elizabeth, Peter turned against himself the nobility and the guards with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick II, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guards to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark. These measures showed that he did not know, and most importantly, did not want to know the country he headed.

At the same time, on February 18, 1762, he signed a manifesto "On the granting of liberty and freedom to all Russian nobility", freeing the nobles from compulsory service, abolishing corporal punishment for them and turning them into a truly privileged class. Then the terrifying Secret Investigative Office was abolished. He stopped the persecution of schismatics and decided to secularize church and monastic land ownership, prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions. All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility. But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and an insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and guards, created the prerequisites for his overthrow. Preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, a thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve her new homeland.

8. The results of the era of palace coups

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so the social system of society and boiled down to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the six monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

Essay on the history of Russia

"The era of palace coups in XVIII century"

2010

1. Introduction

2.1 Causes of palace coups

2.2. The era of palace coups

3.Conclusion

4. List of references

Introduction

The culprit of the instability of the supreme power in the 18th century in Russia was precisely Peter I, who in 1722 issued the “Charter on the Legacy of the Throne.” This legal act secured the autocrat’s right to appoint any successor to himself at his discretion.

Thus, the circle of possible contenders for the throne expanded.

After the death of Peter I, the struggle for the Russian throne between the pretenders, who expressed the interests of various groups of the nobility, intensified. The replacement of the throne was most often carried out with the help of palace coups, in which the noble guards participated. They were carried out relatively easily, because they did not aim to radically change the policy of the state. Everyone who came to the supreme power in Russia, invariably, in one way or another, contributed to strengthening the positions of the nobility by expanding its class privileges and strengthening power over the serfs. Not without reason, therefore, the era of palace coups in Russia is called the time of the formation of the noble empire.

Causes of palace coups

Ironically, Peter I was unable to use his own decree on succession to the throne due to his sudden death. In the autumn of 1724, the tsar caught a cold while helping to rescue soldiers from a shipwrecked boat on the seashore near St. Petersburg. In January, when his position became hopeless, Peter began to draw up a will on the eve of his death, January 27, and did not have time to carry out his plans. From what he wrote, only the words remained: “give everything ...”

Among his heirs are:

grandson Peter, son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei;

second wife Ekaterina Alekseevna

a captive from Livonia, who bore the name of Marta Skavronskaya,

pupil of Pastor Gluck, with whom Peter met in 1704, married in 1712 and whom he crowned with the imperial crown in 1724. They had two sons, Peter and Pavel, who died in infancy, and two daughters: Anna, who was married to Duke of Holstein, and Elizabeth, who remained unmarried and childless.

In addition to this dynastic line, there was another - the descendants of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, the half-brother of Peter I, who had two daughters - Anna and Catherine. Peter married the first in 1711 to the Duke of Courland, the second to the Duke of Mecklenburg.

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups that sought to elevate their protege to the throne.

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which came to the fore in the years of Peter the Great due to their service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

Thirdly, the guards were the driving force behind the coups. Indeed, it was the guards who, during the period under review, decided the question of who should be on the throne.

At that time, the guards began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged "support" of the autocracy, which, moreover, assumed the right to control the conformity of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her "beloved emperor" left.

In general, it would be most correct to assess the time of palace coups as a period of development of the noble empire from the formations of Peter the Great to a new major modernization of the country under Catherine 2. In the second quarter - the middle of the 18th century, there were no major reforms the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna is estimated as a period of counter-reforms).

The era of palace coups

Coup in favor of Ekaterina Alekseevna

The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position by marrying his daughter to Peter's young grandson.

In May 1727, Catherine I died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo.

But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovo, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation has changed. In which aristocratic families began to prevail (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question arose about the heir to the throne, because with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne. It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

Anna Ioannovna and her "conditions"

After the death of Peter II, the question of succession to the throne arose again. Dolgoruky's attempt to enthrone the former tsar's bride, Catherine Dolgoruky, was unsuccessful. The Golitsyn family, traditionally competing with the Dolgoruky, nominated Anna of Kurlyandskaya, the niece of Peter I, as the heir. Anna Ioannovna received the crown at the cost of signing the Conditions, limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council. In Russia, instead of an absolute monarchy, a limited monarchy was established.

However, the majority of aristocrats (and representatives of other segments of the population) did not like this idea of \u200b\u200bthe "supreme leaders". They considered the Conditions an attempt to establish a regime in Russia in which all power would belong to two families - Golitsyn and Dolgoruky. After Anna Ioannovna publicly tore up the Conditions, the Dolgoruky clan was subjected to repression. ". She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman.

Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more calloused by early widowhood ... among court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years , brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and gross entertainment.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna was a time of fierce struggle around the throne. Her all-powerful favorite Biron, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich, the same Osterman and the new face of court politics, Artemy Petrovich Volynsky, took part in the struggle.

As a result, Volynsky was executed on charges of treason and an attempted palace coup against Anna.

Already in 1730, Anna Ioannovna took care of the issue of an heir. Since she did not have her own children, she placed all her hopes on her niece, Elizabeth Christina of Mecklenburg. Having received the name of Anna Leopoldovna at baptism, she was declared the successor. Rather, the future child of Anna Leopoldovna was declared the heir.

By decree of December 17, 1731, the autocrat restored Peter's "Heritage Charter" of 1722 into force. And then the population of Russia took an oath of allegiance to the unborn son of the royal niece.

In 1732, Prince Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig Bevern Blackenburg of Lüneburg arrived in Russia, the offspring of one of the most ancient royal families in Europe - the Welfs. He came to Russia under the guise of entering the Russian service, but his main mission was to become the husband of Anna Leopoldovna. In 1739, his engagement and marriage to Anna Leopoldovna took place, and in 1740 the long-awaited heir was born.

Thus, the threat from possible applicants - Elizabeth Petrovna and Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein (the future Peter III) was eliminated. Anna Ioannovna dies in 1740. In Russia, despite the fact that an heir has been proclaimed - John VI (some authors call him John III), another palace coup is brewing ... Biron is proclaimed regent.

Biron's regency - Minich's coup

The short period of the regency of Ernst-Johann Biron in historical works is covered and evaluated quite unambiguously. The regency of Biron, which became possible with the active support of the same Munnich, Osterman, Cherkassky, lasted no more than three weeks. This speaks solely of the inability of E. I. Biron to independently manage the state, of his inability (or rather, unwillingness) to consolidate with those who could be useful to him.

Even having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight Minich. This time is also characterized by the confrontation between the regent and Anna Leopoldovna. In addition, Biron finally restores against himself and the wife of the princess - Anton Ulrich.

Dissatisfaction with the regent was ripening in the country. On November 8, 1740, another palace coup took place, only Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich was the “soul” of the conspiracy. By the way, it is believed that the first "classic" palace coup was carried out by Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich. The extremely ambitious Minich counted on one of the first places in the state, but he did not receive any new posts or the expected title of generalissimo from the regent. Adjutant G. Kh. Manstein describes in detail the arrest of Biron and his family in his Notes on Russia. In other words, the Germans made a coup against the Germans. In addition to the Germans, of course, Russian supporters of the regent also suffered. For example, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - later a well-known politician of the Elizabethan reign.

The Manifesto was also published on behalf of the baby emperor, from which it followed that the former regent violated the legal rights of him, the emperor, his parents and, in general, had the audacity to do all sorts of "... nasty things to repair." Thus, the palace coup received an official justification! Historians have always unequivocally assessed this coup. Here is how S. M. Solovyov writes: “Russia was presented to an immoral and mediocre foreigner as the price of a shameful connection! It was unbearable."

"Patriotic" coup by Elizabeth Petrovna

On November 25, 1741, another (and not the last in the 18th century) palace coup took place, and it was initiated by Elizabeth Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter I.

A lot has been written about this coup, and almost all historical (and even more so, fiction) literature interprets this event as a “triumph of the Russian spirit”, as the end of foreign domination, as the only possible and even completely legal act.

V. O. Klyuchevsky calls Elizabeth as follows: "The most legitimate of all the successors and successors of Peter I." The name of Tsarina Elizabeth was called at each change of rulers since 1725, but each time the crown went to someone else. Elizabeth has always been very calm about advice and calls to act for the sake of accession to the throne. I must say that in 1741, "Petrov's daughter" succumbed to the persuasion of her entourage only under the influence of fear of an unknown future.

In public opinion, by the will of political circumstances, Elizabeth earned a reputation as the head of a certain “Russian” party that opposed the dominance of foreigners at the courts of Anna Ioannovna and Anna Leopoldovna. In this respect, Elizabeth of 1741 was the exact opposite of Elizabeth of 1725.

After the death of Peter, it was his daughters who, along with Catherine, were considered the main patrons of foreigners. Elizabeth in alliance with Anna Petrovna were symbols of Holstein influence on the Russian court. (Moreover, at that moment, Elizabeth was considered the bride of the Lübeck prince-bishop Karl-August, who later died of a transient illness).

It should be noted that Elizabeth was not some kind of special Russian patriot, she simply became the center of gravity of that court group, which at the moment was removed from power. The patriotic feelings of Elizabeth's supporters were caused not so much by the rejection of foreigners as by their own interests.

In addition, there are inexorable facts indicating that Elizabeth collaborated with French and Swedish agents of influence - Chétardie and Nolken, and that it was foreign courts that played an important role in the anti-government (essentially) adventure of the princess.

The night of the coup was included not only in the history books, but also in the legends. The phrase with which the princess led the guards to storm is known: “Do you know whose daughter I am?” This was quite enough - the authority of Peter was too great in all sectors of society.

Elizabeth's victory brought to power a new generation of courtiers and prominent politicians - the Shuvalov family, M. I. Vorontsov.

Of course, German influence at the Russian court practically disappeared.

However, having established herself on the throne, Elizabeth declared her heir to Holstein-Gottorp Prince Karl-Peter-Ulrich, the son of Anna Petrovna, whose wife Sophia-Augusta-Frederick Anhalt-Zerbstskaya (Fike) some time later became. The young princess has learned well the lessons that the Russian history of coups has taught her - she will successfully bring them to life.

186 days of Peter III

The coup of June 28, 1762 (July 9, according to a new style) in Russian and Soviet historical literature has always been interpreted unequivocally - smart, decisive, patriotic Catherine overthrows her insignificant spouse (marginal and traitor to Russian interests).

V. O. Klyuchevsky spoke of this event in the following way: “To the indignant national feeling was mixed in her (Ekaterina) a self-satisfied consciousness that she creates and gives the Fatherland her own government, although illegal, but which will understand and observe its interests better than the legal one.”

... Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During a serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her "English comrade" H. Williams that one should only wait for the death of the Empress. (England at that moment was very profitable change of political course in Russia).

However, Elizabeth died only in 1761 and her rightful heir Peter III ascended the throne.

During his short reign, Peter brought to life a number of measures that were supposed to strengthen his position and make his figure popular among the people. So, he abolished the Secret Investigative Office and gave the nobles the opportunity to choose between service and a carefree life on his estate. ("Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberties to the Russian nobility").

It is believed, however, that the cause of the coup was precisely the extreme unpopularity of Peter III among the people. He was blamed for: disrespect for Russian shrines and the conclusion of a "shameful peace" with Prussia.

In fact, Peter led Russia out of the war, which was draining the country's human and economic resources, and in which Russia was fulfilling its allied duty to Austria (that is, there was no "Russian interest" in the Seven Years' War).

However, Peter made an unforgivable mistake by declaring his intention to move to recapture Schleswig from Denmark. The guards were especially worried, which, in fact, supported Catherine in the upcoming coup.

In addition, Peter was in no hurry to be crowned, and, in fact, he did not have time to comply with all the formalities that he was obliged to comply with as emperor. Frederick II in his letters persistently advised Peter to put on the crown as soon as possible, but the emperor did not heed the advice of his idol. Thus, in the eyes of the Russian people, he was like a "fake tsar."

As for Catherine, then, as the same Frederick II said: “She was a foreigner, on the eve of a divorce” and the coup was her only chance (Peter emphasized more than once that he was going to divorce his wife and marry Elizabeth Vorontsova).

The signal for the beginning of the coup was the arrest of an officer - the Transfiguration Passek. Alexei Orlov (brother of the favorite) brought Ekaterina to St. Petersburg early in the morning, where she turned to the soldiers of the Izmailovsky regiment, and then to the Semyonovites. This was followed by a prayer service in the Kazan Cathedral and the oath of the Senate and the Synod.

On the evening of June 28, a “campaign to Peterhof” was made, where Peter III was supposed to come to celebrate his name day and the name day of the heir Pavel. The emperor's indecisiveness and some kind of childish obedience did their job - no advice and actions of those close to him could bring Peter out of a state of fear and stupor.

He rather quickly abandoned the struggle for power and, in essence, for his life. The deposed autocrat was taken to Ropsha, where, according to most historians, he was killed by his jailers.

Frederick II commented on this event: "He allowed himself to be overthrown like a child who is sent to sleep."

Coup and coming to power of Catherine II

A new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who declared very sharply his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childishly capricious nature.

The coup of 1762 put on the throne a woman not only smart and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. The empress wanted law and order in government; acquaintance with affairs showed her that disorder prevails not only in the particulars of government, but also in laws; her predecessors continuously took care of bringing into a systematic code the entire mass of individual legal provisions that had accumulated since the Code of 1649, and could not cope with this matter.

The first years of Catherine's reign were a difficult time for her. She herself did not know the current state affairs and had no assistants: the main businessman of Elizabeth's time, P.I. Shuvalov, died; she had little confidence in the abilities of other old nobles.

One Count N.I. Panin enjoyed her confidence. Under Catherine, Panin became in charge of Russia's foreign affairs. Working hard, Catherine spent the first years of her reign in getting acquainted with Russia and the state of affairs, selecting advisers and strengthening her personal position in power.

grounds. She not only wanted to streamline the legislative material, but sought to create new legislative norms that would help establish order and legality in the state. She wanted to create new legislation, and not bring the old into a system. As early as 1765, Ekaterina diligently began to set forth legislative principles and worked without telling anyone about the content of her work. The articles prepared by Catherine were her famous Order in his

original edition. Catherine established her principles of the new Russian legislation on the basis of the philosophical and journalistic thinking of contemporary European literature. So, according to Catherine, ancient Russia lived with alien

morals that should have been remade in a European way, because Russia is a European country. Peter began this alteration by introducing European customs, and he succeeded. Now Catherine continues this work and introduces pan-European laws into Russian laws.

start. Precisely because they are European, they cannot be alien to Russia, although they may seem so because of their novelty. Catherine gave the Order to the officials, and they reduced everything that they considered unnecessary. In 1775, "Institutions for the administration of provinces" were published. Instead of the previous 20 provinces that existed in 1766, by 1795 fifty-one provinces had already appeared according to these "institutions about provinces". Previously, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into counties; now the provinces are divided directly into counties. Previously, regional division was carried out by chance, which is why it turned out that, for example, Moscow province had 2,230,000 inhabitants, and Arkhangelsk only 438,000, but meanwhile

the numerical staff of the administration was approximately the same in both provinces. Now, under the new administrative division, it was adopted as a rule that in each province there were from 300 to 400 thousand inhabitants, and in the district from 20 to 30

thousand. Catherine sought to increase the strength of the administration,

separate departments and involve them in management

earth elements. The legislation on the peasants of Catherine's time continued to further restrict peasant rights and strengthen the landowner's power over him. During the peasant unrest in 1765-1766, the landowners received the right

to exile their peasants not only to a settlement in Siberia (this has already happened before), but also to hard labor, "for insolence" to the landowner. The landowner at any time could give the peasant to the soldiers, without waiting for the recruitment time. Decree of 1767 to the peasants

It was forbidden to file any complaints against the landowners. During the reign of Catherine, the secularization of church lands, the development of legislation on estates, judicial reform, legislative consolidation of private property, measures to expand trade and entrepreneurship, and the introduction of paper money were carried out.

The historical significance of the Catherine's era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of previous history were summed up, the historical processes that had developed earlier were completed. historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses.

Conclusion

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so the social system of society and boiled down to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

Bibliography

Minikh I.E.» Russia and the Russian Court in the First Half of the 18th Century

S.F. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history".

Magazine "Motherland"

http://wale-life.ru/2010/01/05/jepokha-dvorcovykh-perevorotov.html

http://storytime.ru/

Attachment 1

Chronological table

Years of reign
1725 - 1762	the era of "palace coups"
1725 - 1727	the reign of Peter's wife, Catherine (the country is actually ruled by Menshikov)
1727 - 1730	on the throne, the grandson of Peter, Peter II Alekseevich (victory of the nobility, arrest and exile of Menshikov)
	Peter's niece, Anna Ioannovna, was invited to the throne
1730 - 1740	Anna Ioannovna rules, the actual power belongs to her favorite Biron. The dominance of foreigners and repression. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, the grandson of her sister, the infant Ivan Antonovich, ascended the throne.
	coup by the forces of the Preobrazhensky Regiment Epoch coups (3)Abstract >> History ... era palace coups from 1725 to 1762 1. Causes palace coups in Russia Responsible for the instability of the supreme power in XVIII century ... Epoch palace coups (7) Abstract >> History And aptly called " era palace coups". The reasons for this era coups and temporary workers, rooted, ... Anna - sad era Russian life XVIII century, the time of temporary workers, ... and before. In the middle XVIII in. the first symptoms of decomposition appear ...

Domestic and foreign policy of the rulers of the XVIII century. Palace coups of the 18th century How many palace coups in the 18th century

EkaterinaI

PeterII Alekseevich

Anna Ioannovna

IvanVI Antonovich: Biron's regency - Minich's coup

Empress Elizabeth Petrovna

PeterIII Fedorovich

EkaterinaII Alekseevna the Great

Emperor of All Russia PavelI Petrovich

EkaterinaI

Ekaterina Alekseevna

Catherine I

The era of A.D. Menshikov

Conclusion

PeterII Alekseevich

Anna Ioannovna

IvanVI Antonovich: Biron's regency - Minich's coup

Empress Elizabeth Petrovna

PeterIII Fedorovich

EkaterinaII Alekseevna the Great

Emperor of All Russia PavelI Petrovich

Epoch palace coups (7)