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Chlorine forms with oxygen a number of oxides, the total number of which is as many as five types. All of them can be described by the general formula ClxOy. In them, the valence of chlorine varies from 1 to 7.
The valency of different chlorine oxides is different: Cl2O - 1, Cl2O3 - 3, ClO2 - 4, Cl2O6 - 6, Cl2O7 - 7.
Chlorine(I) oxide is used to produce hypochlorites, which are strong bleaching and disinfecting agents.
Chlorine(II) oxide is actively used for bleaching flour, cellulose, paper and other things, as well as for sterilization and disinfection.
Chlorine(VI) oxide and chlorine(VII) oxide are used for the synthesis of organic compounds.
Obtaining Cl2O
This oxide is produced in large-capacity production in two ways.
1. According to the Peluza method. A reaction is carried out between gaseous chlorine and mercury oxide. Depending on the conditions, a different mercury compound may form, but the target product remains. After that, gaseous chlorine oxide is liquefied at a temperature of - Celsius.
Reaction equations describing the Peluza method:
2HgO + Cl2 = Hg2OCl2 + Cl2O
HgO + 2Cl2 = HgCl2 + Cl2O
2. The interaction of chlorine with the reaction:
2Cl2 + 2Na2CO3 + H2O = 2NaHCO3 + Cl2O + 2NaCl
The sodium carbonate may be replaced by other alkali or alkaline earth metal carbonates.
Obtaining ClO2
The only industrial method for producing chlorine dioxide is based on the interaction of sodium chlorate and sulfur dioxide in an acidic environment. The result of this interaction is the reaction:
2NaClO3 + SO2 + H2SO4 = 2NaHSO4 + ClO2
Obtaining Cl2O6
In industry, Cl2O6 is obtained by the interaction of chlorine dioxide with ozone:
2ClO2 + 2O3 = 2O2 + Cl2O6
Obtaining Cl2O7
1. Careful heating of perchloric acid with phosphoric anhydride results in the separation of an oily liquid which is chlorine(VII) oxide. The whole process is described by the reaction:
2HClO4 + P4O10 = H2P4O11 + Cl2O7
2. The second way to obtain this oxide is connected with electricity. If you carry out a solution of perchloric acid, then Cl2O7 can be detected in the anode space.
3. Vacuum heating of transition metal perchlorates leads to the formation of chlorine oxide (VII). The most commonly heated perchlorate or molybdenum.
Physical properties of oxides
Cl2O: Under standard conditions, a brownish-yellow gas with a chlorine smell, and at temperatures below +2 degrees Celsius, a golden-red liquid. Explosive in high concentrations.
ClO2: under standard conditions - a gas with a characteristic red-yellow odor, at temperatures below +10 degrees Celsius - a red-brown liquid. Explodes in the presence of light, in the presence of reducing agents and when heated.
Cl2O6: unstable gas that starts to decompose at temperatures between 0 and +10 degrees Celsius to form chlorine dioxide, at 20 degrees Celsius chlorine is formed. Due to the formation of chlorine dioxide, it is explosive.
Cl2O7: A colorless oily liquid that explodes when heated above 120 degrees Celsius. Can detonate on impact.
Cl 2 at vol. T - yellow-green gas with a sharp suffocating odor, heavier than air - 2.5 times, slightly soluble in water (~ 6.5 g / l); X. R. in nonpolar organic solvents. It is found free only in volcanic gases.
How to get
Based on the process of oxidation of anions Cl -
2Cl - - 2e - = Cl 2 0
Industrial
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of chlorides, more often - NaCl:
2NaCl + 2H 2 O \u003d Cl 2 + 2NaOH + H 2
Laboratory
Oxidation conc. HCI various oxidizing agents:
4HCI + MnO 2 \u003d Cl 2 + MpCl 2 + 2H 2 O
16HCl + 2KMnO 4 \u003d 5Cl 2 + 2MnCl 2 + 2KCl + 8H 2 O
6HCl + KClO 3 \u003d ZCl 2 + KCl + 3H 2 O
14HCl + K 2 Cr 2 O 7 \u003d 3Cl 2 + 2CrCl 3 + 2KCl + 7H 2 O
Chemical properties
Chlorine is a very strong oxidizing agent. Oxidizes metals, non-metals and complex substances, while turning into very stable anions Cl -:
Cl 2 0 + 2e - \u003d 2Cl -
Reactions with metals
Active metals in an atmosphere of dry chlorine gas ignite and burn; in this case, metal chlorides are formed.
Cl 2 + 2Na = 2NaCl
3Cl 2 + 2Fe = 2FeCl 3
Inactive metals are more easily oxidized by wet chlorine or its aqueous solutions:
Cl 2 + Cu \u003d CuCl 2
3Cl 2 + 2Au = 2AuCl 3
Reactions with non-metals
Chlorine does not directly interact only with O 2, N 2, C. Reactions proceed with other non-metals under various conditions.
Non-metal halides are formed. The most important is the reaction of interaction with hydrogen.
Cl 2 + H 2 \u003d 2HC1
Cl 2 + 2S (melt) = S 2 Cl 2
ЗCl 2 + 2Р = 2РCl 3 (or РCl 5 - in excess of Cl 2)
2Cl 2 + Si = SiCl 4
3Cl 2 + I 2 \u003d 2ICl 3
Displacement of free non-metals (Br 2, I 2, N 2, S) from their compounds
Cl 2 + 2KBr = Br 2 + 2KCl
Cl 2 + 2KI \u003d I 2 + 2KCl
Cl 2 + 2HI \u003d I 2 + 2HCl
Cl 2 + H 2 S \u003d S + 2HCl
ZCl 2 + 2NH 3 \u003d N 2 + 6HCl
Disproportionation of chlorine in water and aqueous solutions alkalis
As a result of self-oxidation-self-healing, some chlorine atoms are converted into Cl - anions, and others into positive degree oxidations are part of the anions ClO - or ClO 3 - .
Cl 2 + H 2 O \u003d HCl + HClO hypochlorous to-ta
Cl 2 + 2KOH \u003d KCl + KClO + H 2 O
3Cl 2 + 6KOH = 5KCl + KClO 3 + 3H 2 O
3Cl 2 + 2Ca (OH) 2 \u003d CaCl 2 + Ca (ClO) 2 + 2H 2 O
These reactions are important because they lead to the production of oxygen compounds of chlorine:
KClO 3 and Ca (ClO) 2 - hypochlorites; KClO 3 - potassium chlorate (bertolet salt).
Interaction of chlorine with organic substances
a) substitution of hydrogen atoms in OB molecules
b) attachment of Cl 2 molecules at the point of breaking of multiple carbon-carbon bonds
H 2 C \u003d CH 2 + Cl 2 → ClH 2 C-CH 2 Cl 1,2-dichloroethane
HC≡CH + 2Cl 2 → Cl 2 HC-CHCl 2 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen chloride gas
Physical and chemical properties
HCl is hydrogen chloride. At rev. T - colorless. gas with a pungent odor, liquefies quite easily (mp. -114°С, bp. -85°С). Anhydrous HCl, both in gaseous and liquid states, is non-conductive, chemically inert with respect to metals, metal oxides and hydroxides, and also to many other substances. This means that in the absence of water, hydrogen chloride does not exhibit acidic properties. Only at very high temperatures does gaseous HCl react with metals, even such inactive ones as Cu and Ag.
The reducing properties of the chloride anion in HCl also manifest themselves to a small extent: it is oxidized by fluorine at vol. T, and also at high T (600°C) in the presence of catalysts, it reversibly reacts with oxygen:
2HCl + F 2 \u003d Cl 2 + 2HF
4HCl + O 2 \u003d 2Cl 2 + 2H 2 O
Gaseous HCl is widely used in organic synthesis (hydrochlorination reactions).
How to get
1. Synthesis from simple substances:
H 2 + Cl 2 \u003d 2HCl
2. Formed as a by-product during hydrocarbon chlorination:
R-H + Cl 2 = R-Cl + HCl
3. In the laboratory, they receive the action of conc. H 2 SO 4 for chlorides:
H 2 SO 4 (conc.) + NaCl \u003d 2HCl + NaHSO 4 (with low heating)
H 2 SO 4 (conc.) + 2NaCl \u003d 2HCl + Na 2 SO 4 (with very strong heating)
An aqueous solution of HCl is a strong acid (hydrochloric, or hydrochloric)
HCl is very soluble in water: at vol. T in 1 l of H 2 O dissolves ~ 450 l of gas (dissolution is accompanied by the release of a significant amount of heat). A saturated solution has a mass fraction of HCl equal to 36-37%. This solution has a very pungent, suffocating odor.
HCl molecules in water almost completely decompose into ions, i.e., an aqueous solution of HCl is a strong acid.
Chemical properties of hydrochloric acid
1. HCl dissolved in water exhibits all the general properties of acids due to the presence of H + ions
HCl → H + + Cl -
Interaction:
a) with metals (up to H):
2HCl 2 + Zn \u003d ZnCl 2 + H 2
b) with basic and amphoteric oxides:
2HCl + CuO \u003d CuCl 2 + H 2 O
6HCl + Al 2 O 3 \u003d 2AlCl 3 + ZN 2 O
c) with bases and amphoteric hydroxides:
2HCl + Ca (OH) 2 \u003d CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O
3HCl + Al(OH) 3 \u003d AlCl 3 + ZN 2 O
d) with salts of weaker acids:
2HCl + CaCO 3 \u003d CaCl 2 + CO 2 + H 3 O
HCl + C 6 H 5 ONa \u003d C 6 H 5 OH + NaCl
e) with ammonia:
HCl + NH 3 \u003d NH 4 Cl
Reactions with strong oxidizing agents F 2 , MnO 2 , KMnO 4 , KClO 3 , K 2 Cr 2 O 7 . Anion Cl - is oxidized to free halogen:
2Cl - - 2e - = Cl 2 0
For reaction equations, see "Getting Chlorine". OVR between hydrochloric and nitric acids is of particular importance:
Reactions with organic compounds
Interaction:
a) with amines (as organic bases)
R-NH 2 + HCl → + Cl -
b) with amino acids (as amphoteric compounds)
Oxides and oxoacids of chlorine
Acid oxides
acids
salt
Chemical properties
1. All oxoacids of chlorine and their salts are strong oxidizers.
2. Almost all compounds decompose when heated due to intramolecular oxidation-reduction or disproportionation.
Bleaching powder
Chlorine (whitewash) lime - a mixture of hypochlorite and calcium chloride, has a bleaching and disinfecting effect. Sometimes it is considered as an example of a mixed salt, which simultaneously contains anions of two acids:
Javel water
Aqueous solution of chloride and potassium hapochlorite KCl + KClO + H 2 O
15.1. general characteristics halogens and chalcogens
Halogens ("giving birth to salts") are elements of group VIIA. These include fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. This group also includes unstable, and therefore not naturally occurring, astatine. Sometimes hydrogen is also included in this group.
Chalcogens ("copper-producing") are elements of the VIA group. These include oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium and the almost non-natural polonium.
Of the eight naturally occurring atoms elements of these two groups, the most common oxygen atoms ( w= 49.5%), followed by chlorine atoms in abundance ( w= 0.19%), then - sulfur ( w= 0.048%), then - fluorine ( w= 0.028%). The atoms of other elements are hundreds and thousands of times smaller. You already studied oxygen in the eighth grade (Chapter 10), of the other elements, chlorine and sulfur are the most important - you will get to know them in this chapter.
The orbital radii of the atoms of halogens and chalcogens are small and only for the fourth atoms of each group approach one angstrom. This leads to the fact that all these elements are elements that form non-metals and only tellurium and iodine show some signs of amphoterism.
The general valence electronic formula of halogens is ns 2 np 5 , and chalcogens - ns 2 np 4 . The small size of atoms does not allow them to donate electrons; on the contrary, the atoms of these elements tend to accept them, forming singly charged (for halogens) and doubly charged (for chalcogens) anions. Connecting with small atoms, the atoms of these elements form covalent bonds. Seven valence electrons enable halogen atoms (except fluorine) to form up to seven covalent bonds, and six valence electrons of chalcogen atoms - up to six covalent bonds.
In compounds of fluorine, the most electronegative element, only one oxidation state is possible, namely -I. Oxygen, as you know, has a maximum oxidation state of +II. For atoms of other elements, the highest oxidation state is equal to the group number.
Simple substances of elements of group VIIA are of the same type in structure. They are made up of diatomic molecules. Under normal conditions, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. By chemical properties these substances are strong oxidizing agents. Due to the growth in the size of atoms with an increase in the atomic number, their oxidative activity decreases.
Of the simple substances of group VIA elements, under normal conditions, only oxygen and ozone, consisting of diatomic and triatomic molecules, are gaseous, respectively; the rest are solids. Sulfur consists of eight-atomic cyclic molecules S 8 , selenium and tellurium from polymer molecules Se n and Te n. In terms of their oxidizing activity, chalcogens are inferior to halogens: only oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent of them, while the rest exhibit oxidizing properties to a much lesser extent.
Composition hydrogen compounds halogens (NE) fully complies with the general rule, and chalcogens, in addition to the usual hydrogen compounds of the composition H 2 E, can also form more complex hydrogen compounds of the composition H 2 E n chain structure. In aqueous solutions, both hydrogen halides and other hydrogen chalcogens exhibit acidic properties. Their molecules are acid particles. Of these, only HCl, HBr and HI are strong acids.
For halogens formation oxides uncharacteristic, most of them are unstable, however, higher oxides of the composition E 2 O 7 are known for all halogens (except for fluorine, whose oxygen compounds are not oxides). All halogen oxides are molecular substances, chemically they are acidic oxides.
In accordance with their valence capabilities, chalcogens form two series of oxides: EO 2 and EO 3. All these oxides are acidic.
Hydroxides of halogens and chalcogens are oxoacids.
Make abbreviated electronic formulas and energy diagrams of atoms of elements of VIA and VIIA groups. Indicate the outer and valence electrons.
Chlorine is the most common and therefore the most important of the halogens.
In the earth's crust, chlorine is found in the composition of minerals: halite (rock salt) NaCl, sylvin KCl, carnallite KCl MgCl 2 6H 2 O and many others. Basic industrial way obtaining - electrolysis of sodium or potassium chlorides.
The simple substance chlorine is a greenish gas with a pungent, suffocating odor. At -101 °C, it condenses into a yellow-green liquid. Chlorine is very poisonous, during the First World War they even tried to use it as a chemical warfare agent.
Chlorine is one of the strongest oxidizing agents. It reacts with most simple substances (exception: noble gases, oxygen, nitrogen, graphite, diamond and some others). As a result, halides are formed:
Cl 2 + H 2 \u003d 2HCl (when heated or in the light);
5Cl 2 + 2P = 2PCl 5 (when burned in excess chlorine);
Cl 2 + 2Na = 2NaCl (at room temperature);
3Cl 2 + 2Sb = 2SbCl 3 (at room temperature);
3Cl 2 + 2Fe \u003d 2FeCl 3 (when heated).
In addition, chlorine can also oxidize many complex substances, for example:
Cl 2 + 2HBr = Br 2 + 2HCl (in the gas phase and in solution);
Cl 2 + 2HI \u003d I 2 + 2HCl (in the gas phase and in solution);
Cl 2 + H 2 S = 2HCl + S (in solution);
Cl 2 + 2KBr = Br 2 + 2KCl (in solution);
Cl 2 + 3H 2 O 2 = 2HCl + 2H 2 O + O 2 (in concentrated solution);
Cl 2 + CO \u003d CCl 2 O (in the gas phase);
Cl 2 + C 2 H 4 \u003d C 2 H 4 Cl 2 (in the gas phase).
In water, chlorine partially dissolves (physically), and partially reacts reversibly with it (see § 11.4 c). With a cold solution of potassium hydroxide (and any other alkali), a similar reaction proceeds irreversibly:
Cl 2 + 2OH \u003d Cl + ClO + H 2 O.
As a result, a solution of chloride and potassium hypochlorite is formed. In the case of reaction with calcium hydroxide, a mixture of CaCl 2 and Ca(ClO) 2 is formed, called bleach.
With hot concentrated solutions of alkalis, the reaction proceeds differently:
3Cl 2 + 6OH = 5Cl + ClO 3 + 3H 2 O.
In the case of reaction with KOH, potassium chlorate, called Berthollet salt, is obtained in this way.
Hydrogen chloride is the only hydrogen bond chlorine. This colorless gas with a suffocating odor is highly soluble in water (it completely reacts with it, forming oxonium ions and chloride ions (see § 11.4). Its solution in water is called hydrochloric or hydrochloric acid. This is one of the most important products of chemical technology, since hydrochloric acid is consumed in many industries.It is also of great importance for humans, in particular because it is contained in gastric juice, contributing to the digestion of food.
Hydrogen chloride used to be produced industrially by burning chlorine in hydrogen. At present, the need for hydrochloric acid is almost completely satisfied through the use of hydrogen chloride, which is formed as a by-product during the chlorination of various organic substances, for example, methane:
CH 4 + Cl 2 \u003d CH 3 + HCl
And laboratories produce hydrogen chloride from sodium chloride by treating it with concentrated sulfuric acid:
NaCl + H 2 SO 4 = HCl + NaHSO 4 (at room temperature);
2NaCl + 2H 2 SO 4 \u003d 2HCl + Na 2 S 2 O 7 + H 2 O (when heated).
Higher oxide chlorine Cl 2 O 7 - colorless oily liquid, molecular substance, acid oxide. As a result of reaction with water, it forms perchloric acid HClO 4 , the only oxoacid of chlorine that exists as an individual substance; the remaining oxoacids of chlorine are known only in aqueous solutions. Information about these chlorine acids is given in table 35.
Table 35
C/O |
Formula |
Name |
Strength |
Name |
hydrochloric |
||||
hypochlorous |
hypochlorites |
|||
chloride |
||||
chlorine |
||||
perchlorates |
Most chlorides are soluble in water. The exceptions are AgCl, PbCl 2 , TlCl and Hg 2 Cl 2 . The formation of a colorless precipitate of silver chloride when a solution of silver nitrate is added to the test solution - qualitative reaction for chloride ion:
Ag + Cl = AgCl
Chlorine can be obtained from sodium or potassium chlorides in the laboratory:
2NaCl + 3H 2 SO 4 + MnO 2 = 2NaHSO 4 + MnSO 4 + 2H 2 O + Cl 2
As an oxidizing agent in the production of chlorine by this method, you can use not only manganese dioxide, but also KMnO 4 , K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , KClO 3 .
Sodium and potassium hypochlorites are found in various household and industrial bleaches. Bleach is also used as a bleach and is also used as a disinfectant.
Potassium chlorate is used in the manufacture of matches, explosives and pyrotechnic compositions. When heated, it decomposes:
4KClO 3 \u003d KCl + 3KClO 4;
2KClO 3 = 2KCl + O 2 (in the presence of MnO 2).
Potassium perchlorate also decomposes, but at a higher temperature: KClO 4 \u003d KCl + 2O 2.
1.Compose molecular reaction equations for which ionic equations are given in the text of the paragraph.
2. Make the equations of the reactions given in the text of the paragraph descriptively.
3. Make equations of reactions that characterize the chemical properties of a) chlorine, b) hydrogen chloride (and hydrochloric acid), c) potassium chloride and d) barium chloride.
Chemical properties of chlorine compounds
Various allotropic modifications are stable under different conditions element sulfur. Under normal conditions simple matter sulfur is a yellow brittle crystalline substance, consisting of eight-atomic molecules:
This is the so-called rhombic sulfur (or -sulfur) S 8. (The name comes from a crystallographic term characterizing the symmetry of the crystals of this substance). When heated, it melts (113 ° C), turning into a mobile yellow liquid, consisting of the same molecules. With further heating, the cycles are broken and very long polymer molecules are formed - the melt darkens and becomes very viscous. This is the so-called -sulfur S n. Sulfur boils (445 ° C) in the form of diatomic molecules S 2, similar in structure to oxygen molecules. The structure of these molecules, as well as oxygen molecules, cannot be described in terms of the covalent bond model. In addition, there are other allotropic modifications of sulfur.
In nature, there are deposits of native sulfur, from which it is mined. Most of the sulfur that is mined is used to produce sulfuric acid. Part of sulfur is used in agriculture for plant protection. Purified sulfur is used in medicine for the treatment of skin diseases.
From hydrogen compounds sulfur, hydrogen sulfide (monosulfan) H 2 S is of the greatest importance. It is a colorless poisonous gas with the smell of rotten eggs. It is slightly soluble in water. Physical dissolution. To a small extent, protolysis of hydrogen sulfide molecules occurs in an aqueous solution, and to an even lesser extent, the resulting hydrosulfide ions (see Appendix 13). However, a solution of hydrogen sulfide in water is called hydrosulfide acid (or hydrogen sulfide water).
Hydrogen sulfide burns in air:
2H 2 S + 3O 2 \u003d 2H 2 O + SO 2 (with excess oxygen).
A qualitative reaction to the presence of hydrogen sulfide in the air is the formation of black lead sulfide (blackening of filter paper moistened with a solution of lead nitrate:
H 2 S + Pb 2 + 2H 2 O \u003d PbS + 2H 3O
The reaction proceeds in this direction due to the very low solubility of lead sulfide.
In addition to hydrogen sulfide, sulfur forms other sulfanes H 2 S n, for example, disulfan H 2 S 2 , similar in structure to hydrogen peroxide. It is also a very weak acid; its salt is pyrite FeS 2 .
In accordance with the valence capabilities of its atoms, sulfur forms two oxide: SO 2 and SO 3 . Sulfur dioxide (the trivial name is sulfur dioxide) is a colorless gas with a pungent, cough-inducing odor. Sulfur trioxide (the old name is sulfuric anhydride) is a solid, extremely hygroscopic non-molecular substance, which turns into a molecular substance when heated. Both oxides are acidic. When reacted with water, they form sulfur and sulfuric acids, respectively. acids.
In dilute solutions, sulfuric acid is a typical strong acid with all their characteristic properties.
Pure sulfuric acid, as well as its concentrated solutions, are very strong oxidizing agents, and the oxidizing atoms here are not hydrogen atoms, but sulfur atoms, passing from the oxidation state + VI to the oxidation state + IV. As a result, OVR with concentrated sulfuric acid usually produces sulfur dioxide, for example:
Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 \u003d CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O;
2KBr + 3H 2 SO 4 \u003d 2KHSO 4 + Br 2 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O.
Thus, even metals that are in the voltage series to the right of hydrogen (Cu, Ag, Hg) react with concentrated sulfuric acid. At the same time, some fairly active metals (Fe, Cr, Al, etc.) do not react with concentrated sulfuric acid, this is due to the fact that a dense protective film is formed on the surface of such metals under the action of sulfuric acid, preventing further oxidation. This phenomenon is called passivation.
Being a dibasic acid, sulfuric acid forms two rows salts: medium and sour. Acid salts are isolated only for alkaline elements and ammonium, the existence of other acid salts is doubtful.
Most medium sulfates are soluble in water and, since the sulfate ion is practically not an anionic base, they do not undergo anionic hydrolysis.
Modern industrial methods for the production of sulfuric acid are based on the production of sulfur dioxide (1st stage), its oxidation to trioxide (2nd stage) and the interaction of sulfur trioxide with water (3rd stage).
Sulfur dioxide is obtained by burning sulfur or various sulfides in oxygen:
S + O 2 \u003d SO 2;
4FeS 2 + 11O 2 \u003d 2Fe 2 O 3 + 8SO 2.
The process of roasting sulfide ores in non-ferrous metallurgy is always accompanied by the formation of sulfur dioxide, which is used to produce sulfuric acid.
Under normal conditions, sulfur dioxide cannot be oxidized with oxygen. Oxidation is carried out by heating in the presence of a catalyst, vanadium(V) oxide or platinum. Although the reaction
2SO 2 + O 2 2SO 3 + Q
reversible, the yield reaches 99%.
If the resulting gas mixture of sulfur trioxide with air is passed through pure water, most of the sulfur trioxide is not absorbed. To prevent losses, the gas mixture is passed through sulfuric acid or its concentrated solutions. In this case, disulfuric acid is formed:
SO 3 + H 2 SO 4 \u003d H 2 S 2 O 7.
A solution of disulfuric acid in sulfuric acid is called oleum and is often represented as a solution of sulfur trioxide in sulfuric acid.
By diluting oleum with water, both pure sulfuric acid and its solutions can be obtained.
1.Compose structural formulas
a) sulfur dioxide, b) sulfur trioxide,
c) sulfuric acid, d) disulfuric acid.
In nature, chlorine occurs in a gaseous state and only in the form of compounds with other gases. Under conditions close to normal, it is a greenish, poisonous, caustic gas. It has more weight than air. Has a sweet smell. The chlorine molecule contains two atoms. In a calm state does not burn, but when high temperatures enters into interaction with hydrogen, after which an explosion is possible. As a result, phosgene gas is released. Very poisonous. So, even at a low concentration in the air (0.001 mg per 1 dm 3) it can cause death. chlorine says that it is heavier than air, therefore, it will always be near the floor in the form of a yellowish-green haze.
Historical facts
For the first time in practice, this substance was obtained by K. Schelee in 1774 by combining hydrochloric acid and pyrolusite. However, only in 1810, P. Davy was able to characterize chlorine and establish that it is a separate chemical element.
It is worth noting that in 1772 he was able to obtain hydrogen chloride - a compound of chlorine with hydrogen, but the chemist could not separate these two elements.
Chemical characterization of chlorine
Chlorine is a chemical element of the main subgroup VII group periodic tables. It is in the third period and has atomic number 17 (17 protons in the atomic nucleus). Reactive nonmetal. It is denoted by the letters Cl.
It is a typical representative of gases that do not have color, but have a sharp pungent odor. Usually toxic. All halogens are highly soluble in water. Upon contact with moist air, they begin to smoke.
The external electronic configuration of the Cl atom is 3s23p5. Therefore, in compounds, the chemical element exhibits oxidation levels of -1, +1, +3, +4, +5, +6 and +7. The covalent radius of the atom is 0.96 Å, the ionic radius of Cl is 1.83 Å, the affinity of the atom to the electron is 3.65 eV, the ionization level is 12.87 eV.
As mentioned above, chlorine is a fairly active non-metal, which allows you to create compounds with almost any metal (in some cases, by heating or with the help of moisture, while displacing bromine) and non-metals. In powder form, it reacts with metals only under the influence of high temperatures.
The maximum combustion temperature is 2250 °C. With oxygen, it can form oxides, hypochlorites, chlorites and chlorates. All compounds containing oxygen become explosive when interacting with oxidizing substances. It is worth noting that they can explode randomly, while chlorates explode only when exposed to any initiators.
Characteristics of chlorine by position in the periodic system:
Simple substance;
. element of the seventeenth group of the periodic table;
. the third period of the third row;
. the seventh group of the main subgroup;
. atomic number 17;
. denoted by the symbol Cl;
. reactive non-metal;
. is in the halogen group;
. under conditions close to normal, it is a yellowish-green poisonous gas with a pungent odor;
. the chlorine molecule has 2 atoms (formula Cl 2).
Physical properties chlorine:
Boiling point: -34.04 °C;
. melting point: -101.5 °C;
. density in the gaseous state - 3.214 g/l;
. the density of liquid chlorine (during the boiling period) - 1.537 g / cm 3;
. density of solid chlorine - 1.9 g/cm 3 ;
. specific volume - 1.745 x 10 -3 l / g.
Chlorine: characteristics of temperature changes
In the gaseous state, it tends to liquefy easily. At a pressure of 8 atmospheres and a temperature of 20 ° C, it looks like a greenish-yellow liquid. It has very high corrosion properties. As practice shows, this chemical element can maintain a liquid state up to a critical temperature (143 ° C), subject to an increase in pressure.
If it is cooled to a temperature of -32 ° C, it will change to liquid, regardless of atmospheric pressure. With a further decrease in temperature, crystallization occurs (at -101 ° C).
Chlorine in nature
The earth's crust contains only 0.017% chlorine. The bulk is in volcanic gases. As indicated above, the substance has a high chemical activity, as a result of which it occurs in nature in compounds with other elements. However, many minerals contain chlorine. The characteristic of the element allows the formation of about a hundred different minerals. As a rule, these are metal chlorides.
Also, a large amount of it is in the oceans - almost 2%. This is due to the fact that chlorides are very actively dissolved and carried by rivers and seas. The reverse process is also possible. Chlorine is washed back to the shore, and then the wind carries it around. That is why its highest concentration is observed in coastal zones. In the arid regions of the planet, the gas we are considering is formed by the evaporation of water, as a result of which salt marshes appear. About 100 million tons of this substance are mined annually in the world. Which, however, is not surprising, because there are many deposits containing chlorine. Its characteristics, however, largely depend on its geographical location.
Methods for obtaining chlorine
Today, there are a number of methods for obtaining chlorine, of which the following are the most common:
1. Aperture. It is the simplest and least expensive. Salt solution in diaphragm electrolysis enters the anode space. Further on the steel cathode grid flows into the diaphragm. It contains a small amount of polymer fibers. An important feature this device is countercurrent. It is directed from the anode to the cathode space, which makes it possible to obtain chlorine and lye separately.
2. Membrane. The most energy efficient, but difficult to implement in an organization. Similar to diaphragm. The difference is that the anode and cathode spaces are completely separated by a membrane. Therefore, the output is two separate streams.
It should be noted that the characteristics of the chem. element (chlorine) obtained by these methods will be different. More "clean" is considered to be the membrane method.
3. Mercury method with liquid cathode. Compared to other technologies, this option allows you to get the purest chlorine.
The basic scheme of the installation consists of an electrolyser and interconnected pump and amalgam decomposer. The mercury pumped by the pump together with a solution of common salt serves as the cathode, and carbon or graphite electrodes serve as the anode. The principle of operation of the installation is as follows: chlorine is released from the electrolyte, which is removed from the electrolyzer together with the anolyte. Impurities and chlorine residues are removed from the latter, saturated with halite and returned to electrolysis again.
The requirements of industrial safety and the unprofitability of production led to the replacement of the liquid cathode with a solid one.
The use of chlorine for industrial purposes
The properties of chlorine allow it to be actively used in industry. With the help of this chemical element get various (vinyl chloride, chloro-rubber, etc.), drugs, disinfectants. But the biggest niche occupied in the industry is the production of hydrochloric acid and lime.
Widely used cleaning methods drinking water. Today, they are trying to move away from this method, replacing it with ozonation, since the substance we are considering negatively affects the human body, besides, chlorinated water destroys pipelines. This is due to the fact that in the free state Cl adversely affects pipes made from polyolefins. However, most countries prefer the chlorination method.
Chlorine is also used in metallurgy. With its help, a number of rare metals (niobium, tantalum, titanium) are obtained. In the chemical industry, various organochlorine compounds are actively used for weed control and for other agricultural purposes, the element is also used as a bleach.
Due to its chemical structure, chlorine destroys most organic and inorganic dyes. This is achieved by completely discoloring them. Such a result is possible only if water is present, because the bleaching process occurs due to which it is formed after the breakdown of chlorine: Cl 2 + H 2 O → HCl + HClO → 2HCl + O. This method was used a couple of centuries ago and is still popular today.
The use of this substance for the production of organochlorine insecticides is very popular. These agricultural preparations kill harmful organisms, leaving plants intact. A significant part of all chlorine produced on the planet goes to agricultural needs.
It is also used in the production of plastic compounds and rubber. With their help, wire insulation, stationery, equipment, shells are made. household appliances etc. There is an opinion that rubbers obtained in this way are harmful to humans, but this has not been confirmed by science.
It is worth noting that chlorine (the characteristics of the substance were disclosed in detail by us earlier) and its derivatives, such as mustard gas and phosgene, are also used for military purposes to obtain chemical warfare agents.
Chlorine as a bright representative of non-metals
Non-metals are simple substances that include gases and liquids. In most cases, they conduct electric current worse than metals, and have significant differences in physical and mechanical characteristics. With the help of a high level of ionization, they are able to form covalent chemical compounds. Below, a characteristic of a non-metal will be given using the example of chlorine.
As mentioned above, this chemical element is a gas. IN normal conditions it completely lacks properties similar to those of metals. Without outside help, it cannot interact with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, etc. It exhibits its oxidizing properties in bonds with simple substances and some complex ones. Refers to halogens, which is clearly reflected in its chemical features. In compounds with other representatives of halogens (bromine, astatine, iodine), it displaces them. In the gaseous state, chlorine (its characteristic is a direct confirmation of this) dissolves well. It is an excellent disinfectant. Kills only living organisms, which makes it indispensable in agriculture and medicine.
Use as a poison
The characteristic of the chlorine atom allows it to be used as a poisonous agent. For the first time, gas was used by Germany on April 22, 1915, during the First World War, as a result of which about 15 thousand people died. At the moment it does not apply.
Let's give brief description chemical element as an asphyxiant. Affects the human body through suffocation. First, it irritates the upper respiratory tract and mucous membranes of the eyes. A strong cough begins with attacks of suffocation. Further, penetrating into the lungs, the gas corrodes the lung tissue, which leads to edema. Important! Chlorine is a fast acting substance.
Depending on the concentration in the air, the symptoms are different. With a low content in a person, redness of the mucous membrane of the eyes, slight shortness of breath is observed. The content in the atmosphere of 1.5-2 g / m 3 causes heaviness and sharp sensations in the chest, a sharp pain in the upper respiratory tract. Also, the condition may be accompanied by severe lacrimation. After 10-15 minutes of being in a room with such a concentration of chlorine, a severe burn of the lungs and death occurs. At denser concentrations, death is possible within a minute from paralysis of the upper respiratory tract.
Chlorine in the life of organisms and plants
Chlorine is found in almost all living organisms. The peculiarity is that it is present not in its pure form, but in the form of compounds.
In organisms of animals and humans, chloride ions maintain osmotic equality. This is due to the fact that they have the most suitable radius for penetration into membrane cells. Along with potassium ions, Cl regulates the water-salt balance. In the intestine, chloride ions create a favorable environment for the action of proteolytic enzymes of gastric juice. Chlorine channels are provided in many cells of our body. Through them, intercellular fluid exchange occurs and the pH of the cell is maintained. About 85% of the total volume of this element in the body resides in the intercellular space. It is excreted from the body through the urethra. Produced by the female body during breastfeeding.
At this stage of development, it is difficult to say unequivocally which diseases are provoked by chlorine and its compounds. This is due to the lack of research in this area.
Chlorine ions are also present in plant cells. He actively takes part in the energy exchange. Without this element, the process of photosynthesis is impossible. With its help, the roots actively absorb the necessary substances. But a high concentration of chlorine in plants can have a detrimental effect (slowing down the process of photosynthesis, stopping development and growth).
However, there are such representatives of the flora who were able to "make friends" or at least get along with this element. The characteristic of a non-metal (chlorine) contains such an item as the ability of a substance to oxidize soils. In the process of evolution, the plants mentioned above, called halophytes, occupied empty salt marshes, which were empty due to an overabundance of this element. They absorb chloride ions, and then get rid of them with the help of leaf fall.
Transportation and storage of chlorine
There are several ways to move and store chlorine. The characteristic of the element implies the need for special high-pressure cylinders. Such containers have an identification marking - a vertical green line. Cylinders must be thoroughly rinsed monthly. With prolonged storage of chlorine, a very explosive precipitate is formed in them - nitrogen trichloride. If all safety rules are not observed, spontaneous ignition and explosion are possible.
The study of chlorine
Future chemists should know the characteristics of chlorine. According to the plan, 9th graders can even make laboratory experiments with this substance based on basic knowledge of the discipline. Naturally, the teacher is obliged to conduct a safety briefing.
The order of work is as follows: you need to take a flask with chlorine and pour small metal shavings into it. In flight, the chips will flare up with bright bright sparks and at the same time a light white smoke of SbCl 3 will form. When tin foil is immersed in a vessel with chlorine, it will also spontaneously ignite, and fiery snowflakes will slowly sink to the bottom of the flask. During this reaction, a smoky liquid, SnCl 4 , is formed. When iron shavings are placed in the vessel, red “drops” are formed and red smoke of FeCl 3 will appear.
As well as practical work the theory is repeated. In particular, such a question as the characterization of chlorine by position in the periodic system (described at the beginning of the article).
As a result of the experiments, it turns out that the element actively reacts to organic compounds. If you place cotton wool, previously moistened in turpentine, in a jar of chlorine, it will instantly ignite, and soot will fall sharply from the flask. Sodium effectively smolders with a yellowish flame, and salt crystals appear on the walls of chemical dishes. Students will be interested to know that, while still a young chemist, N. N. Semenov (later Nobel Prize winner), after conducting such an experiment, collected salt from the walls of the flask and, sprinkling bread with it, ate it. Chemistry turned out to be right and did not let the scientist down. As a result of the experiment carried out by the chemist, ordinary table salt really turned out!
