Glossary of house carving terms
The decor was made mainly from pine, sometimes from spruce, that is, from the so-called "red forest", coniferous trees, felled (as opposed to deciduous) in the spring during the beginning of sap flow. At the same time, resinous juices that appeared under the bark stained the tree trunk in a reddish-orange color (hence the name). The resinous nature of conifers contributed to the preservation of decor made from them. The life of the decor was also extended by its painting, and a good, non-leaking roof, under which it was located.
In Tula, for decor, as well as for the roof, there was also aspen, which, due to its water-repellent properties, was also a good material for these purposes.
Of all types of house carving, the most widespread in Tula is through (slotted) and especially sawn with its variety - “consignment note”, when the pattern is not placed in the light, but superimposed on some other basis. To a lesser extent, there is a “volumetric carving”, which replaced the “deaf” one and is an ornament made not from a whole tree, but made up of separate pieces-details.
Patterns of platbands, valances, friezes, pilasters and blades, interwindow inserts are made using the technique of sawn-laid carving. Through carving is mostly used in valances, small details of platbands, decorative roof overhangs (“towels”), brackets, etc.
More about architectural wooden houses:
platband
Decorative frame for a window or doorway. window casing usually consists of a pediment, sandrik (kokoshnik), two vertical rods (sidewall) and a window sill (apron). In wooden architecture, the platband closes the gap between the wall and the window frame. Before wooden architraves decorated with carvings. Carved architraves are an important element that gives the house individual features. The term "platband" is used mainly in relation to Russian architecture of the 15th-17th centuries.
In the Urals, platbands were called "cutout but", and in the Vologda region "in s resi." So they were also called in the Olonets province "l And chniki", and in the Novgorod region - "Zaok about nniki" or "cashed out And chka. In the Moscow region - the platband is "ol about side", in Arkhangelsk - "updated about ska", in Karelia - "podz about rnik", in Perm - "okl but dka", in Pskovskaya - "obs but dka" and "region And py", in the Donetsk region - "the guise of about vka" and "window cover", in the Tver region - "cash And bus ", in the Vyatka province -" stutter about nok", or "back about nok.
In Russia, woodcarving - carving - has existed since ancient times. The drawing was called "sign", the words were also used: vyzorochye, patterned.
Baluster- support for the railing, which performs not only the bearing, but also the enclosing function. They are made in the form of the same type of curly elements located at the same distance from each other. Allows you to give the railing of the stairs or balustrades an openwork look.
. The frontal board and wings are the same as the prichelina.
Prichelina - from the word at the forehead, i.e. at the face. This is one or more boards decorated with carvings on the pediment, covering the ends of the under-roofing slabs from moisture. Decorations of the frontal board and wind board.
Prichelina in the modern architectural and construction language is a cornice.
The board covering the transition of the wall logs to the boards of the pediment of the hut is usually always covered with rich carvings. Plots carvers took different. Along with a floral ornament with a complex interweaving of stems, leaves and rosette flowers, fantastic half-maidens, half-fish, lions, and birds were depicted. Fairy-tale characters migrated from the side boards of ships to the frontal boards of the huts.
Usually, an element identical to the decorative motif of a classical frieze, an acanthus branch, acted as an ornament scheme for the frontal board. The woodworker only transformed it, giving it great splendor. The basis of the ornament was a wavy branch, usually coming from the central figure. The branch was covered with lush palmate leaves, with their shoots forming a series of symmetrical roundings. TO late XIX century, the saturation of the decor increased, the splendor of the leaves, which form the basis of the pattern, increased.
The lower, hanging part of the prichelina is made in the likeness of a towel (towel).
Skate- in the old days, this is the butt part of the okhlupnya above the facade of the house in the form of a carved horse's head. Nowadays - the upper horizontal edge of the junction of the roof slopes.
Oblong boards, often with contour carvings in the lower part, fixed on the roof, like tiles and used to cover the roof. The ploughshare was usually made of aspen.
Okhlupen (Shelom)- a log with a gutter crowning the roof and covering the upper joint of the roof slopes.
Lacy overhangs or a series of short vertical planks with blind, often through carving, bordering the roof overhangs in the form of continuous lace. They are made under the prichelina (under the eaves).
Towel- a carved board hanging vertically down on the pediment or on the sides of the platbands. Closes the joints of the piers or other horizontal elements.
It is also known in the old Russian version of the "rushnik", which means a towel. In rituals, it acts as a gift, a talisman, a cover, an ornament, a symbol of the holiday, it has a symbolic and informative function. Ritual functions and symbolism of the towel are in many ways similar to the canvas (towel).
shutters- wooden shields. Often carved. Closing windows at night or in the absence of the owners. Often found in the north, where the nights are white, which at night was darker than at home. Designed to keep warm and protect against penetration into the house from the outside. Locked more often from the inside. Together with platbands, they are one of the most important elements of home decor.
Welt, saw thread(through)
A carving in which background elements are completely removed. It is carried out on flat boards by sawing through them. This achieves an extraordinary lightness of the product and delicacy.
P Approximately 170 years ago appearedslotted thread
(through, sawn)and quickly spread. The reason for this was economic - forests became smaller, and wood became more expensive. slotted thread It was relatively easy to manufacture, created the effect of airiness, the play of light and shadow of conjugated and overhead parts.
Before her, the carving was "ship", i.e. voluminous in the form of bas-reliefs. But slotted thread is cheaper and is done faster .
male roof
In ancient Russian wooden architecture, the roof, in which the hemp is folded not on inclined rafters, but on horizontal logs, is laid down. The ends of these longitudinal legs are cut into the transverse walls of the log house, or otherwise, males. To prevent the clefts from slipping, they are supported from below by a hollowed-out log-stream, based on "hens". Thus, the beds and the "hens" formed a lattice, on top of which the roof was laid. The top of the roof was covered with a triangle specially cut from a log - a helmet. Such a roof was built without a single nail and held very firmly.
Chicken
Spruce beams, hewn with a rhizome, which is bent in the form of a hook (so-called kokora), supporting a water outlet (stream). The chicken is laid down on the roof. They are fixed in the slabs in various ways: in one case, shallow nests are made on the long upper ends of the chicken, corresponding to the dimensions of the slabs on which the hens are held, in the other, groove nests are cut down in the slabs, where the chickens are laid, but at the same time slightly weakened - this is possible in massive slabs.
Kokora
Drainage tray on kokorah. Drainage tray on kokorah Curved ends of chickens, where a water drain (drain, stream, jam) is laid in a wooden roof. Kokora - the butt of a coniferous tree trunk, cut down along with one of the rhizomes growing perpendicular to the trunk.
log cabin
The structure of the walls of a wooden building, assembled from horizontally laid logs. The structure of the walls of a wooden building, assembled from horizontally laid logs. At the corners, the logs were connected with the help of cuttings. different ways. The most common: "in oblo" - with small releases, was widely used in many buildings; "in the paw" - without releases, was used only in some parts of the building. Also, depending on the type of structures, other cuts were used, but they were less common. The log cabins could be different shapes. In residential areas, they were usually rectangular. The most common form of log cabins were five-walls - a rectangular-shaped log cabin, divided by a wall into two rooms, as well as six-walls - already divided by two perpendicular walls into 4 rooms. In public places, especially in churches, octagonal log cabins were often used.
rafter roof
Two methods of making such roofs were widely used - with one pair of rafters in the middle and on males along the edges, or with three pairs of rafters at the ends and in the center. With their lower ends, the rafters were cut into nests specially hollowed out in the upper logs of the log house. Between the rafters cut the legs. Vertical logs - "hens" could often be used in the design. From above, the rafters were cross-connected with boards. This method is still widely used in roof construction.
Frieze or belt - a horizontal strip of ornament running along the edge of the house.
The scheme of placement of decorative elements
The Middle Ages is considered a period in history with the most ruthless attitude towards people. For the slightest offense they were subjected to sophisticated torture. This review presents 13 torture devices that will make people confess to anything.
1. "Pear of suffering"
This cruel tool was used to punish women, abortionists, liars and homosexuals. The device was inserted into the vagina in women or anus in men. When the executioner turned the screw, the “petals” opened, tearing the flesh and bringing unbearable torment to the victims. Many died later from blood poisoning.
2. Rack
The victim was tied to a wooden frame by the arms and legs and the limbs were stretched in opposite directions. At first cartilage tissues were torn, and then limbs were pulled out. A little later, spikes were attached to the frame, which dug into the back of the victim. To increase the pain, the spikes were smeared with salt.
3. "Catherine's Wheel"
Before tying the victim to the wheel, her limbs were broken. When rotating, the legs and arms finally broke out, bringing unbearable torment to the victim. Some died from pain shock, while others suffered for several days.
4. Pipe-"crocodile"
The legs or face of the victim (sometimes both) were placed inside this tube, thereby immobilizing it. executioner gradually heated the iron forcing people to confess to anything.
5. Copper bull
The victim was placed in a copper statue of a bull, under which a fire was lit. Human died from burns and suffocation. During the torture, the screams coming from inside resembled the lowing of a bull.
6. Spanish donkey
A wooden log in the form of a triangle was fixed on the "legs". The naked victim was placed on top of a sharp corner that cut right into the crotch. To make the torture more unbearable, to the feet tied weights.
7 Torture Coffin
The victims were placed in metal cages, which completely immobilized. If the torture coffins were too large for people, this caused them additional torment. This death was long and painful. The birds pecked at the flesh of the victims, and the crowd threw stones at them.
8. "Cat's paw"
"Cat's paw" was used to tear flesh to bone.
9. Cradle of Judas
One of the most cruel torture was called the "Cradle of Judas" or "Chair of Judas." sacrifice forcibly lowered onto an iron pyramid. The point fell directly into the anus or vagina. The resulting gaps after a while led to death.
10. Breast "claws"
This instrument of torture was used on women who accused of adultery. The "claws" were heated and then plunged into the victim's chest. If a woman did not die, then for the rest of her life she remained with terrible scars.
The Middle Ages and the Renaissance are considered periods in history with the most ruthless attitude towards people. For the slightest offense they were subjected to sophisticated torture. This review presents 13 torture devices that will make people confess to anything.
1. "Pear of suffering"
This cruel tool was used to punish women who had abortions, liars and homosexuals. The device was inserted into the vagina in women or the anus in men. When the executioner turned the screw, the “petals” opened, tearing the flesh and bringing unbearable torment to the victims. Many died later from blood poisoning.
2. Rack
The victim was tied to a wooden frame by the arms and legs and the limbs were stretched in opposite directions. At first, cartilaginous tissues were torn, and then limbs were pulled out. A little later, spikes were attached to the frame, which dug into the back of the victim. To increase the pain, the spikes were smeared with salt.
3. "Catherine's Wheel"
Before tying the victim to the wheel, her limbs were broken. When rotating, the legs and arms finally broke out, bringing unbearable torment to the victim. Some died from pain shock, while others suffered for several days.
4. Pipe-"crocodile"
The legs or face of the victim (sometimes both) were placed inside this tube, thereby immobilizing it. The executioner gradually heated the iron, forcing people to confess to anything.
5. Copper bull
The victim was placed in a copper statue of a bull, under which a fire was lit. The man died from burns and suffocation. During the torture, the screams coming from inside resembled the lowing of a bull.
6. Spanish donkey
A wooden log in the form of a triangle was fixed on the "legs". The naked victim was placed on top of a sharp corner that cut right into the crotch. To make the torture more unbearable, weights were tied to the legs.
7 Torture Coffin
The victims were placed in metal cages, which completely immobilized them. If the torture coffins were too large for people, this caused them additional torment. This death was long and painful. The birds pecked at the flesh of the victims, and the crowd threw stones at them.
8. Crusher head
The head of the unfortunate was clamped under this "cap". The executioner slowly tightened the screws, and the upper part of the “crusher” pressed against the skull. The jaw was the first to break, the teeth fell out. After that, the eyes were squeezed out, and finally, the skull was broken.
9. "Cat's paw"
"Cat's paw" was used to tear the flesh to the bone.
10. Knee crusher
This instrument of torture was especially popular during the Inquisition. The victim's knee was placed between the teeth. When the executioner tightened the screws, the teeth pierced the flesh, and then crushed the knee joint. After such torture, it was no longer possible to get up but legs.
11. Cradle of Judas
One of the most brutal tortures was called the Judas Cradle or the Judas Chair. The victim was forcibly lowered onto an iron pyramid. The point fell directly into the anus or vagina. The resulting gaps after a while led to death.
12. Breast "claws"
This instrument of torture was used on women who were accused of adultery. The "claws" were heated and then plunged into the victim's chest. If a woman did not die, then for the rest of her life she remained with terrible scars.
13. "Swearing bridle"
This peculiar iron mask was used to punish grumpy women. There could be spikes inside it, and in the hole for the mouth there was a plate that was superimposed on the tongue so that the victim could not speak. Usually a woman was taken to noisy squares. The bell attached to the mask attracted everyone's attention, prompting the crowd to laugh at the one who was being punished.
The instruments of torture are so sophisticated in places that the cruelty of their inventors is simply amazing.
Pear of suffering
This “pear” was used to punish women who had an abortion. And also - liars and homosexuals. The executioner inserted the tool into the right hole of the offender, untwisted the petals, but what's next - you guessed it. Sometimes the victims survived, but not for long: then they died anyway - from blood poisoning.
Source: wikipedia.org
spanish donkey
A wooden log in the form of a triangle was mounted on a scabbard. He was “decorated” with thorns, and a naked person was put on this business. To make torture more “pleasurable”, weights were put on the legs of the penalty box.
Source: wikipedia.org
Cradle of Judas
The tool is also known under the name “Chair of Judas“. The penalty box was lowered onto a point that stuck into his genitals. Under the martyr's own weight and gravity, everything was torn there. Well, then everything is according to the scenario, that is, death.
Source: wikipedia.org
Breast claws
Specifically: for the chest of an unfaithful wife. If one was caught hot, then these claws were taken, heated, and stuck into what is usually covered with a bra. Sometimes, after such torture, the ladies remained alive, but with terribly mutilated female beauty.
Source: wikipedia.org
Pectoral
In ancient times, this word was used to call a breast decoration in the form of a pair of carved gold or silver cups. Often, the accessory was decorated with precious stones, and worn like a modern bra, fixing it on the chest with chains.
For the manufacture of rafters in individual construction, they usually use wooden materials: boards, timber, logs. Despite the relative cheapness, wooden roof rafters are strong enough to withstand all roofing loads and serve faithfully for many years.
Other possible materials for rafter systems - metal and reinforced concrete - are impractical to use for private construction, due to their heavy weight, complex installation and high cost.
The rafter system must be strong, but not heavy. Of course, for the bearing foundation of the roof of large industrial buildings and high-rise buildings, you have to use metal or reinforced concrete. And for ordinary private houses - this is an unnecessary excess. The rafters in this case are made of wood - from boards, timber (ordinary or glued), logs.
Logs are rarely used, exclusively for log cabins. This material is too weighty, requiring high professionalism from the carpenter and the ability to perform complex cuts at the attachment points.
Beam is the most the best way from which you can mount strong and durable rafters. The only drawback of the beam is the high price.
As a replacement for timber, cheaper boards are often used, with a minimum thickness of 40-60 mm. The list of their advantages can also include light weight, ease of installation and a high margin of safety.
The following requirements are imposed on the selected lumber:
- The minimum allowable wood grades are 1-3. The presence of knots is allowed in a small amount (it is better to do without them at all!), no more than three knots, up to 3 cm high, by 3 m. Cracks are also acceptable, but they should not penetrate the wood through, their length cannot exceed half the length of the material.
- It is allowed to use dried wood with a moisture content of up to 18-22%. If these figures are higher, the rafters, as they dry, may crack or bend and lose their shape.
- The bearing parts of the truss system are made of material with a thickness of 5 cm and a width of 10-15 cm.
- The length of elements from coniferous species is up to 6.5 m, and from solid hardwood - up to 4.5 m.
- All wooden parts of the rafters, before the start of operation, must be treated with protective compounds that prevent their decay, fire and damage by wood-boring insects.
The main parts of the wooden truss system
The main component unit of the wooden truss system is the truss - a flat triangular structure. The sides of the triangle form rafter legs connected at an angle at the top. To connect the rafters horizontally, puffs, crossbars, contractions are used.
The rafter system is made up of several trusses, exposed to the Mauerlat, and fastened together by girders.
To better understand the specifics of the farm, let's define its elements. Their composition and quantity in one structure depends on the type of roof, its dimensions and the type of rafters used.
So, the components can be as follows:
- rafter leg- these are the rafters themselves, on which the crate is stuffed and laid roofing material. The truss consists of two rafters (beams) connected at the top in a ridge in the form of a triangle. The angle of their inclination is equal to the angle of inclination of the roof slopes.
- puff- a crossbar that fastens the rafter legs horizontally and does not allow them to disperse in different directions under load. It is used in the hanging rafter system.
- Rigel- a beam similar to a puff, but working on a different principle. In the system, it is compressed, not stretched. Fastens truss beams in their upper part.
- fight- also a horizontal crossbar connecting the rafters and increasing the stability of the farm. It is used in the system of layered rafters.
- Rack- a horizontal beam that serves as an additional emphasis for fixing the rafter legs.
- Strut- an element mounted at an angle to the horizontal, giving the rafters additional stability.
- Filly- are used to lengthen the rafter legs if it is necessary to create overhangs.
Also, the truss system can include parts that are not directly related to trusses, but are used for their installation and assembly. They are:
- Run- a beam running along the slopes, connecting the truss legs of the trusses. A special case is a ridge run, which is installed along the roof slopes at its highest point (ridge).
- crate- consists of beams or boards stuffed onto rafter legs from above along the roof slopes. Roofing material is mounted on the crate.
- Mauerlat- timber or boards laid along the perimeter of the outer (main) walls of the building. The presence of a Mauerlat is provided for fixing the lower ends of the rafters on it.
- Sill- an element similar to a Mauerlat, but laid along the inner wall of the building. Vertical racks are fixed on the bed.
Types of truss systems
From wood, you can assemble many options for trusses and, accordingly, truss systems. But all of them can be divided into two types: hanging and layered.
Hanging truss systems
Used for rooms without internal walls. Trusses made up of rafters rely solely on the outer walls, there is no need for additional support. That is, hanging rafters cover one span, 6-14 m wide.
An obligatory part of hanging trusses, in addition to rafter legs connected at an angle at the top, is a puff - a horizontal beam connecting the rafters. The tightening becomes the basis of the "triangle" of the farm. In most cases, it is located below the structure, connecting the lower ends of the paired rafters. But schemes with raised tightening are also used. And also with its modified version - a crossbar, which looks like a raised puff, but works in compression, not in tension, like a true puff.
The need to use a Mauerlat depends on the presence of a puff and its location in the farm. If the puff is located at the base of the rafter legs, then the Mauerlat is not needed. During installation, the truss is supported on the outer walls through the existing puff, which at the same time becomes a floor beam. If the puff is raised up or a crossbar is used instead, then the Mauerlat is necessarily included in the scheme, as the basis for attaching the rafters to the upper edges of the walls.
Headstocks and struts are used as additional elements in the hanging system. They serve to strengthen the truss when covering wide spans.
The headstock in its appearance resembles a vertical stand extending from the center of the puff to the top point of the truss (ridge part). In fact, the headstock is a suspension, the function of which is to support too long puffs (more than 6 m) and exclude its deflection.
In tandem with the headstock, with an even greater increase in the puff length, struts are used - diagonal beams. They rest with one end on the rafter leg, the other - on the headstock. In one farm, two struts are used, on both sides of the headstock.
In summer cottages and small private houses, hanging wooden rafters are good because they allow you to arrange spacious attic rooms without partitions inside. Of course, we are talking about schemes where there are no struts and grandmothers. Their presence imposes on the developer the need to divide the attic into at least two rooms.
Sloped truss systems
The layered construction of wooden rafters is used for rooms with internal main walls, which serve as an additional support for the system. In this case, the distance between the outer walls (total overlapped span) can be within 6-15 m.
slope farms, without fail, consist of rafter legs resting on the outer walls, and a vertical drain resting on the inner wall. If there are two internal walls in the scheme, two racks can be used.
Unlike hanging, in the layered system there is always a Mauerlat, to which the rafter legs are attached. Racks crash into a kind of Mauerlat - lying down. This is a beam laid on top of the inner supporting wall.
With a span of 6 m or less, a simple layered truss is used, consisting of two paired rafter legs and a rack. The device of wooden rafters with an increase in span requires the introduction of additional details into the scheme, such as contractions and struts (rafter legs).
Contractions are similar to puffs in hanging systems, but they are always located above the base of the rafter legs. The main purpose of the fight is to increase the stability of the system.
For stability, struts are also designed, which are also called rafter legs. The brace supports the rafter leg, that is, in fact, it becomes an additional (third in a row, after the Mauerlat and ridge run) support for it.
Laminated wooden rafters are the most common for private houses, cottages. As a rule, such buildings have one or more internal main partition walls, which can become a support and additional support for a solid truss system.
Ways of fastening rafters on the Mauerlat
The node for attaching the rafters to the Mauerlat is one of the most important, the functionality of the rafter system, its ability to perceive loads, depends on the correct implementation of it.
In total, there are two types of such mounts: rigid and sliding. The choice of one of them depends on the scheme roof structure. Replacement hard mount to sliding or vice versa, as well as insufficient provision of the necessary degree of shift of the rafter leg will lead to the fact that the circuit will “break” and will not work.
Rigid fastening provides a strong, immovable articulation of the rafter with the Mauerlat. Shear is not allowed, however, rotation of the rafter in the hinge is possible. Such a mount is organized in two main ways:
- by cutting the rafter beam into the Mauerlat and further fixing the knot with corners, staples, nails;
- using metal corners and a support bar.
A sliding mount (or, as roofers call it, a “slider”) has a slightly different look and functionality. It allows the rafter leg to move relative to the support. Of course, this shift will not be noticeable to the eye, but will allow rafter system do not deform during natural shrinkage of the walls of the house. Sliding fastening is especially necessary in the construction of wooden log cabins. It is also implemented in the construction of houses of any other type, if required by the scheme and the performed calculation of wooden rafters.
To provide the rafter leg with a small power reserve relative to the Mauerlat, special fasteners are used - sliders. Structurally, they consist of two metal elements, the first of which is static, and the second is able to move relative to the first. There are two types of sliding mounts: open and closed types.
An open type slider is a prefabricated structure consisting of two separate parts: a static guide bar and a corner with a bend at the top. The guide is threaded into the bend of the corner and fixed on the rafter leg, the corner is attached to the Mauerlat. When changing the geometric dimensions of the building, the guide can move relative to the rigidly fixed corner by 60-160 mm.
The sliding fastening of the closed type is exactly the same in its property. The design changes a little, it is no longer collapsible, but solid. The corner, which is attached to the Mauerlat, has a loop in the central part. A guide is inserted into it, which, in turn, is attached to the rafter leg.
What are both mounting options (sliding and rigid) shown in the video clip:
Another important node of the truss truss is the rafter attachment point in the ridge part. In private housing construction, the following fastening options are most often used for these purposes:
- overlap;
- butt;
- using a half-tree cut.
Lap fastening is considered the most simple option. The upper edges of the paired rafters are simply superimposed on each other. Then, a hole is made in both ends and the connection is fixed with a stud or a bolt with a nut.
For butt jointing, the upper ends of the rafter legs are cut at an angle in order to make it possible to combine the sawn surfaces. Fastening is carried out with the help of nails, which are driven into the end of the ridge part through both rafter legs. To further fix the nail connection, use wooden horizontal plates or metal plates that are applied over the connection on both sides of the truss.
The half-tree connection provides for preliminary sawing of recesses at the upper ends of the rafters by half the thickness of the beam. This allows you to combine the rafters in the ridge, like designer parts, without increasing the thickness of the ridge assembly (as happens when overlapping). After combining the parts, they are fixed with nails, bolts or dowels.
In addition to the methods described, there are other, less common ones. For example, a thorn-groove connection. It is not popular, as it requires great professionalism from the carpenter. The essence of fastening is that a recess-groove is made in one rafter, and a spike is cut out on the other. The spike and groove are combined and fastened with a nail fight or dowel.
One of the possible connections of the rafters in the ridge (butt, through the ridge run) is considered in the video:
Advantages and disadvantages of wooden rafters
However, working with wood and installing wooden rafters does not present any particular difficulties. In addition, there are other advantages of using wood as a material for rafters:
- low cost of wood;
- ubiquitous availability;
- relatively low weight, simplifying installation;
- there is no need to attract heavy construction equipment;
- versatility, the ability to use on buildings made of any material, regardless of the bearing capacity of the foundation.
The disadvantages of choosing wooden rafters are insignificant, but they also need to be known "in person" before starting construction:
- the need for treatment with protective agents that prevent fire and decay of the tree, as well as reduce its “attractiveness” for various pests;
- the use of wooden rafters is possible only on spans up to 14-17 m, for wider spans it is recommended to use metal or reinforced concrete;
- somewhat reduced service life, compared with metal or reinforced concrete trusses.
Thus, all the shortcomings are rather features than real negative sides. This explains such a wide distribution of wooden rafters in private housing construction.
