Transformations in the Russian Empire in the 60-70s of the century before last are called liberal reforms. The pivotal event of the long-term process was the Great Peasant Reform of 1861. It determined the course of further bourgeois reconstructions and reorganizations taken by the government of Alexander II. It was necessary to reorganize the political superstructure, rebuild the court, the army, and much more.
Thus, Alexander II's understanding of the urgent need for a peasant reform led him, in the course of implementing the plan, to carry out a complex of transformations in all spheres of Russian public life. Unwittingly, the emperor himself took steps towards a bourgeois monarchy, which was based on the transition to an industrial society, a market economy and parliamentarism. The assassination of the king in March 1881 turned the country's movement in a different direction.
Military, educational, peasant and judicial reforms were the main transformations carried out in Russia in the 60s and 70s of the century, and thanks to them the country overcame its significant backwardness from the advanced powers.
However, the reforms of Alexander II were not as ideal and did not go as smoothly as it should have been. The aristocratic character of Russian society to a certain extent persisted even after the much-desired liberal reforms were carried out.
What is liberalism
Liberalism is the direction of socio-political and philosophical thought proclaiming human rights and freedoms as the highest value. The influence of the state and other structures, including religion, on a person in a liberal society is usually limited by the constitution. In the economy, liberalism is expressed in the inviolability of private property, freedom of trade and entrepreneurship.
Reasons for liberal reforms
The main reason for liberal reforms is Russia's lagging behind the advanced European countries, which became especially noticeable by the middle of the 19th century. Another reason is the peasant uprisings, the number of which increased sharply by the mid-1850s; popular uprisings threatened the existing state system and autocratic power, so the situation had to be saved.
Prerequisites for reforms
Russian society in all periods of the New Age was very colorful. Completed conservatives here side by side with liberals, zealots of antiquity - with innovators, people with free views; supporters of autocracy tried to get along with adherents of a limited monarchy and republicans. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the contradictions between the "old" and "new" Russians escalated, as a whole galaxy of enlightened nobles grew up, longing for large-scale changes in the country. The imperial house had to make concessions in order to maintain supreme power.
Reform Objectives
The main task of liberal reforms is to overcome the social, political, military and intellectual backwardness of the Russian Empire. Particularly acute was the task of abolishing serfdom, which by that time was morally very outdated, and hindered the economic development of the country. Another task is to show activity precisely “from above”, on the part of the tsarist authorities, until the revolutionaries undertake radical transformations.
Reform of administration of zemstvos and cities
The nobility after the abolition of serfdom was concerned about the strengthening of its role in the political life of the country. The government of the reformers sensitively caught the mood of the ruling class and developed the zemstvo, and a little later, the city reforms.
The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.
Zemstvo reform | urban reform |
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Governing bodies |
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Members of the zemstvo assembly (vowels) were elected every three years by groups of voters (curia):
| Vowels were elected every four years. Three-digit electoral system (small, medium and large taxpayers). Electoral rights had institutions and departments, secular and religious institutions that contributed fees to the city budget. |
The main principles of the zemstvo and city reforms were:
- Separation of local self-government from administrative power.
- Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
- Independence in financial and economic matters.
Democratic judicial reform
The judiciary, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the "Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia." In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial charters that defined new principles of legal proceedings:
Organizational principles of the court | The dishonesty of the court. |
Irremovability and independence of judges. |
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Publicity. |
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Delimitation of the powers of the courts. |
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Introduction to the institution of jurors. |
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Establishment of the institute of forensic investigators. |
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Introduction to the Institute of Notaries. |
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Election of individual judicial bodies. |
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Political investigations are the prerogative of the gendarmerie. |
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Death sentences can be passed by the Senate and a military court. |
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Changing the system of punishments (cancellation of stigmatization and corporal punishment for women). |
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Court system | |
Special. |
The emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.
The overdue reform of the army
The experience of the Crimean War showed that Russia needed a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the reorganization of the military command and control system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared as early as 1861 and was implemented in 1874 with the following steps:
- 15 military districts have been created.
- Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
- New military regulations have been introduced.
- Equipping the army with new models of weapons.
- Cancellation of the recruiting system.
- The introduction of universal conscription for the recruitment of the army.
As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.
Education reform
The establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter of the Secondary School solved the following problems:
- accessibility of education for all classes;
- monopolies of the state and church in the field of education, permission for zemstvos, public associations and individuals to open educational institutions;
- gender equality, the opening of higher courses for women;
- expanding the autonomy of universities.
The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.
Accompanying reforms
In addition to the landmark reforms, the following were carried out along the way:
The financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted in the transformation of the banking system and the strengthening of the role of the Ministry of Finance.
The tax reform was manifested in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.
The censorship reform abolished the preview of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.
Liberal reforms of Alexander II: pros and cons
Name of the reform | Essence of reform | ||
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Judicial reform | A unified system of courts was created, while all estates were equal before the law. Court hearings became public and also received media coverage. The parties now had the right to use the services of non-state lawyers. | The reform proclaimed the equality of all groups of the population in rights. The attitude of the state towards a person was now formed on the basis of his actions, and not on the origin. | The reform was inconsistent. For the peasants, special volost courts were created with their own system of punishments, which included beatings. If political cases were considered, then administrative repressions were applied even if the verdict was acquittal. |
Zemstvo reform | Changes were made to the system of local self-government. Elections were scheduled for zemstvo and district councils, which were held in two stages. The local government was appointed for a four-year term. | Zemstvos dealt with issues primary education, health care, taxation, etc. Local authorities were given a certain autonomy. | Most of the seats in the zemstvo authorities were occupied by nobles, there were few peasants and merchants. As a result, all issues affecting the interests of the peasants were resolved in favor of the landowners. |
Military reform | Recruitment has been replaced by universal military service, covering all classes. Military districts were created, the main headquarters was founded. | The new system made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and quickly raise a large army if necessary. A large-scale rearmament has been carried out. A network of military schools was created, education in which was available to representatives of all classes. Corporal punishment in the army has been abolished. | In some cases, corporal punishment was retained - for "fined" soldiers. |
Peasant reform | The personal independence of the peasant was legally established, and he was also given a certain allotment of land for permanent use with the subsequent right of redemption. | The obsolete and obsolete serfdom was finally abolished. There was an opportunity to significantly raise the standard of living of the rural population. Thanks to this, it was possible to eliminate the danger of peasant riots, which became commonplace in the country in the 1850s. The reform made it possible to negotiate with the landowners, who remained full owners of all their land, with the exception of small plots allocated for peasants. | The quitrent was preserved, which the peasants were obliged to pay to the landowner for several years for the right to use the land; |
educational reform | A system of real schools was introduced, in which, unlike classical gymnasiums, the emphasis was on teaching mathematics and natural sciences. A significant number of research laboratories have been established. | The people had the opportunity to receive a versatile and more secular education, to master the sciences in their modern (at that time) state. In addition, higher education courses for women began to open. The advantage for the ruling class was the elimination of the danger of the spread of revolutionary ideas, since young people were now educated in Russia, and not in the west. | Graduates of real schools were limited admission to higher special schools, and they could not enter the university at all. |
urban reform | A system of city self-government was introduced, including city Duma, council and electoral assembly. | The reform allowed the population of cities to equip their urban economy: build roads, infrastructure, credit institutions, marinas, etc. This made it possible to revive the country's commercial and industrial development, as well as to introduce the population to civilian life. | The urban reform was openly nationalistic and confessional in nature. Among the deputies of the city duma, the number of non-Christians should not exceed a third, and the mayor should not have been a Jew. |
Results of reforms
The "Great Reforms", as they are usually called in historical science, significantly modernized and modernized the Russian Empire. The class and property inequality of various segments of the population was significantly smoothed out, although it persisted until the October Revolution. The level of education of the population, including the lower classes, has noticeably increased.
At the same time, clashes escalated between the "enlightened bureaucrats" who developed and implemented reforms, and the aristocratic nobility, who wanted to preserve the old order and their influence in the country. Because of this, Alexander II was forced to maneuver, removing the "enlightened bureaucrats" from business and reappointing them to their posts if necessary.
Significance of reforms
The "great reforms" had a dual meaning, which was originally planned by the tsarist government. On the one hand, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens has improved the social situation in the country; the widespread dissemination of education had a positive impact on the modernization of the Russian economy and contributed to the development of science; military reform made it possible to replace the old, expensive and inefficient army with a more modern one, fully meeting its main tasks and causing minimal harm to the personality of a soldier in peacetime. The "Great Reforms" contributed to the disintegration of the remnants of the feudal system and the development of capitalism in Russia.
On the other hand, the liberal reforms strengthened the strength and authority of autocratic power and made it possible to combat the spread of radical revolutionary ideas. It just so happened that the most faithful supporters of unlimited royal power were precisely the liberal “enlightened bureaucrats”, and not the arrogant aristocratic elite. Education was assigned special role: the youth had to be taught to think thoroughly in order to prevent the formation of superficial radical views in their minds.
Peasant reform
On February 19, 1861, Alexander P signed the "Regulations on Peasants Leaving Serfdom" and the Manifesto announcing the abolition of serfdom in Russia. According to these documents, the peasants immediately received personal freedom, rural and volost peasant governments were introduced. The peasants were released with land, but giving them a sufficient amount of land was unprofitable for the landowner, since then the peasant farms would be completely independent of him. The reform established "higher" and "lower" norms for allotments. A cut was provided for from the peasant allotment in favor of the landowner, if its pre-reform dimensions exceeded the “higher” norm, and a cut if it did not reach the “lower” norm. In practice, segments have become the rule, and cuts the exception. The best, most necessary land for the peasant (pastures, hayfields, watering places) most often fell into the segments. Lack of land and striped land did not allow the peasant economy to develop successfully. The peasants did not have the money needed to buy the land. In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at a time, the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments. The remaining 20% was paid by the peasant community itself to the landowner. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state in the form of redemption payments with an accrual of 6% per annum. The payment by the peasants to the landowner stretched over 20 years. It gave rise to a specific temporarily obligated state of the peasants, who had to pay dues and perform certain duties until they completely redeemed their allotment. That is, the peasant still paid dues and worked out corvée (albeit in a reduced form). Only in 1881 was a law issued on the liquidation of the temporarily obligated position of the peasants.
The final stage of the peasant reform was the transfer of peasants for redemption. When receiving land, the peasants were obliged to pay its cost. The market price of the land transferred to the peasants was actually 544 million rubles. However, the formula for calculating the cost of land developed by the government raised its price to 867 million rubles, that is, 1.5 times. Consequently, both the granting of land and the redemption transaction were carried out exclusively in the interests of the nobility. (In fact, peasants also paid for personal emancipation.)
The peasant reform of 1861 was carried out primarily in the interests of the landowners. Many farms went bankrupt. The response to the reform was a surge of peasant unrest and riots that swept across the country in the early 60s.
Zemstvo and city reforms
By March 1863, after the preliminary work done by the commissions of N.A. Milyutin and P.A. Valtsev, “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were prepared, approved by Alexander II on January 1, 1864. The created zemstvo institutions consisted of administrative (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive (county and provincial zemstvo councils). Both were elected for a three-year term. All voters were divided into three curia - landowners, city voters, elected from rural societies. If for the first two curiae the elections were direct, although limited by the property qualification, then for the third - multi-stage and without qualifications. The zemstvos were deprived of any political functions and dealt exclusively with economic issues of local importance. Zemstvos were in charge of organizing local communications, post offices, schools, hospitals, taking care of local trade and industry, etc. The zemstvos kept doctors, teachers, technicians, statisticians, insurance agents, technicians, statisticians and other zemstvo employees who had professional training. The activities of the zemstvos, even within these very modest limits, were extremely useful and necessary. In addition, the zemstvos became centers of social activity for the liberal nobility.
According to the same principles as the zemstvo, it was carried out urban reform, which received the force of law on June 16, 1870. In 509 cities of Russia, new self-government bodies were introduced - city dumas, elected for four years. City councils were elected for the same term executive bodies-- management. The competence of city self-government, as well as zemstvo, was limited to the framework of exclusively economic issues. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. City voters were divided into three curia according to the property principle, the leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. Persons who did not have property in the city and did not pay city taxes (workers, intellectuals, employees) did not take part in the elections. Like the zemstvos, they were under the strict control of the government administration.
Judicial reform
In 1861, the State Chancellery was instructed to start developing the "Basic Provisions for the Transformation of the Judiciary in Russia." Major lawyers of the country were involved in the preparation of the judicial reform. A prominent role was played here by the well-known lawyer, State Secretary of the State Council S.I. Zarudny, under whose leadership by 1862 the main principles of the new judicial system and legal proceedings were developed. They received the approval of Alexander II, were published and sent for feedback to judicial institutions, universities, well-known foreign lawyers, and formed the basis of judicial charters. The developed draft judicial statutes provided for the non-estate court and its independence from administrative authorities, the irremovability of judges and judicial investigators, the equality of all estates before the law, the oral nature, competitiveness and publicity of the trial with the participation of jurors and lawyers (sworn attorneys). This was a significant step forward compared to the feudal class court, with its silence and clerical secrecy, lack of protection and bureaucratic red tape.
November 20, 1864 Alexander II approved the judicial statutes. They introduced crown and magistrate courts. The crown court had two instances: the first was the district court, the second - the judicial chamber, uniting several judicial districts. Elected jurors established only the guilt or innocence of the defendant; the measure of punishment was determined by the judges and two members of the court. Decisions made by the district court with the participation of jurors were considered final, and without their participation they could be appealed to the judicial chamber. Decisions of district courts and judicial chambers could be appealed only in case of violation of the lawful order of legal proceedings. Appeals against these decisions were considered by the Senate, which was the highest instance of cassation, which had the right of cassation (review and cancellation) of court decisions.
To deal with petty offenses and civil cases with a claim of up to 500 rubles in counties and cities, a world court was established with simplified legal proceedings.
Judicial statutes of 1864 introduced the institution of sworn attorneys - the bar, as well as the institution of judicial investigators - special officials of the judicial department, who were transferred to the preliminary investigation in criminal cases, which was withdrawn from the police. Chairmen and members of district courts and judicial chambers, sworn attorneys and judicial investigators had to have a higher legal education, and a sworn attorney and his assistant, in addition, had five years of experience. judicial practice. A person who had an educational qualification not lower than average and who had served at least three years in the public service could be elected a justice of the peace.
Supervision over the legality of the actions of judicial institutions was carried out by the chief prosecutor of the Senate, prosecutors of the judicial chambers and district courts. They reported directly to the Minister of Justice. Although the judicial reform was the most consistent of the bourgeois reforms, however, it retained many features of the estate-feudal system. political system, subsequent instructions introduced into the judicial reform an even greater deviation from the principles of the bourgeois court. The spiritual court (consistory) for spiritual matters and military courts for the military were preserved. The highest royal dignitaries - members of the State Council, Senators, ministers, generals - were judged by a special Supreme Criminal Court. In 1866, court officials were actually made dependent on the governors: they were obliged to appear before the governor on the first call and "obey his legal requirements." In 1872, the Special Presence of the ruling Senate was created specifically to deal with cases of political crimes. The law of 1872 limited the publicity of court sessions and their coverage in the press. In 1889 the world court was liquidated (restored in 1912).
Judicial statutes of 1864 for the first time in Russia introduced a notary. In the capitals, provincial and county cities, notary offices were established with a staff of notaries who were in charge, "under the supervision of judicial places, of the commission of acts and other actions on the notarial part on the basis of a special provision about them." Under the influence of a social democratic upsurge in the years of the revolutionary situation, the autocracy forced to go to the abolition of corporal punishment. The law issued on April 17, 1863 abolished public punishments by verdicts of civil and military courts with whips, gauntlets, "cats", and branding. However, this measure was inconsistent and had a class character. Corporal punishment has not been completely abolished.
Financial reforms
The needs of the capitalist country and the disorder of finances during the years of the Crimean War imperatively demanded that all financial affairs be streamlined. Conducted in the 60s of the 19th century. a series of financial reforms was aimed at centralizing the financial affairs and affected mainly the apparatus of financial management. Decree of 1860. The State Bank was established, which replaced the former lending institutions - zemstvo and commercial banks, while maintaining the treasury and orders of public charity. The State Bank received the pre-emptive right to lend to trade and industrial establishments. The state budget was streamlined. Law of 1862 established new order budgeting by individual departments. The only responsible manager of all income and expenses was the Minister of Finance. From the same time, the list of income and expenses began to be published for general information.
In 1864 the state control was reorganized. In all provinces, departments of state control were established - control chambers independent of governors and other departments. The Chambers of Control audited the revenues and expenditures of all local institutions on a monthly basis. Since 1868 began to publish annual reports of the state controller, who was at the head of state control.
The farming system was abolished, in which most of the indirect tax went not to the treasury, but to the pockets of tax farmers. However, all these measures did not change the general class orientation of the government's financial policy. The main burden of taxes and fees still lay on the taxable population. The poll tax for peasants, philistines, and artisans was preserved. The privileged classes were exempted from it. Poll tax, quitrent and redemption payments amounted to over 25% government revenue However, the bulk of these revenues were indirect taxes. More than 50% of the expenditures in the state budget went to the maintenance of the army and the administrative apparatus, up to 35% to the payment of interest on public debts, the issuance of subsidies, and so on. Expenses for public education, medicine, and charity accounted for less than 1/10 of the state budget.
Military reform
Defeat in Crimean war showed that the Russian regular army, based on recruitment, cannot withstand more modern European ones. It was necessary to create an army with a trained reserve of personnel, modern weapons and well-trained officers. Transformations in the military sphere are largely associated with the name of D.A. Milyutin, appointed to the post of Minister of War in 1861 year. The key element of the reform was the law of 1874. on the all-word conscription of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was set in the ground forces up to 6 years, in the navy - up to 7 years. The terms of active service were significantly reduced depending on the educational qualification. Persons who had higher education served only six months.
In the 60s. the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of a system of steel artillery pieces, and the improvement of the equestrian fleet. Of particular importance was the accelerated development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, specialized cadet schools and academies were created - the General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, etc. The command and control system of the armed forces has been improved.
All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness.
Reforms in the field of public education and printing
Reforms of administration, courts and the army logically demanded a change in the education system. In 1864, a new “Charter of the Gymnasium” and “Regulations on Public Schools” were approved, which regulated primary and secondary education. The main thing was that all-class education was actually introduced. Along with the state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. They accepted children of all classes capable of paying tuition fees, mainly the children of the nobility and the bourgeoisie. In the 70s. was the beginning of higher education for women.
In 1863, the new Statute returned autonomy to the universities, which had been abolished by Nicholas I in 1835. They restored independence in dealing with administrative, financial, scientific and pedagogical issues.
In 1865, "Provisional Rules" on printing were introduced. They abolished preliminary censorship for a number of printed publications: books designed for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as central periodicals. The new rules did not apply to the provincial press and mass literature for the people. Special spiritual censorship was also preserved. From the end of the 60s. the government began to issue decrees, largely nullifying the main provisions of the education reform and censorship.
Topic: “Liberal reforms of the 6070s of the XIX century” Objectives: educational: acquaintance with the main provisions of the Zemstvo, urban, military, judicial reforms, transformations in the field of education and the press; work on the formation of the concepts of "zemstvo", "uprava", "juror". educational: based on the identification of historical parallels between the position of Russia in the middle. 19th century and the present political situation, showing the importance of studying this topic for the formation of a modern legal state. developing: skill formation independent work with historical sources, developing skills in working with a diagram, developing skills to compare historical phenomena, and the ability to draw conclusions. Equipment: map " Russian empire to the second floor. XIX century", schemes "The system of zemstvo self-government bodies", "The structure of urban self-government", "The judicial system according to the reform of 1864". Lesson type: combined. Activities of the teacher and students 1. Survey homework(13 minutes). Frontal. Individually. Frontal. Individually (in writing, at the blackboard). Frontal. Summing up the results of the survey. Methods and means of teaching Determine the meaning of the concepts: “statutory 1. What is the name of the topic that we studied in the last lesson? 2. Which chapter does this topic belong to? 3. What imprint on the ongoing reforms, in your opinion, was made by the personality of Alexander II? 4. Determine the most important reasons the abolition of serfdom. 5. Do you agree with the statement that the peasant reform was a reform "from above"? Why? 6. What are the main provisions of the reform? 7. letter”, “ransom”, “temporarily liable peasants”, “segments”? 8. peasants with an annual quitrent of 12 rubles? 9. drafted charter; peasants were transferred to the position of temporarily liable; did the peasants have to repay the loan to the state? 10. The abolition of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations. The changed situation required the adoption of new laws, the introduction of new management institutions. Within what period: should have been Calculate the amount of the redemption payment What was the significance of the reform? 2. Recording the topic of the lesson on the board and in notebooks. Bringing the purpose of the lesson to the attention of students. Learning new material (25 minutes). Working with a document. Statement of the problem task. This task was fulfilled to a certain extent by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. 19th century In the course of the lesson, we must find out what is the main content of the reform reforms of Alexander II. "Reforms of the 6070s of the XIX century". Plan for the study of new material: Zemskaya (1864) and city (1870) reform. I. Judicial Reform (1864). II. Military reform (1874). III. IV. Transformations in the field of education and censorship. I. The first of the overdue reforms was the establishment of local governments. The law on local self-government, adopted in 1864, determined the structure of zemstvo institutions and their competence. Zemstvos were introduced in counties and provinces, and each of them had administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and executive (zemstvo councils) bodies. They were landowners, owners of non-land real estate, peasants. Elections for the first two curiae were carried out on the basis of a property qualification. The provincial assemblies were elected at a meeting of the district assemblies from among the vowels (deputies elected by the population of the districts). Read the document on page 157 of the textbook and indicate the terms of reference of the zemstvos. DOCUMENT Management of property and land fees Arrangement and maintenance of property belonging to the zemstvos Care for the development of local trade Measures to ensure the people's food. Administration of zemstvo charitable affairs Subject to the conduct of zemstvo institutions... 1. zemstvo. 2. buildings, other structures and means of communication. 3. 4. institutions... ways to end poverty. 5. and industry. 6. Participation ... in the care of public education, public health and prisons. Zemstvo bodies were initially elected only in 33 out of 50 Russian provinces, where the influence of the nobility was strong. Their main weakness was that the zemstvos could not work at full strength: the budget met the real needs of the zemstvos only by 80%. However, contrary to the government's expectations, the zemstvos did not focus on resolving local economic affairs, but were actively involved in the political struggle, becoming the basis of the liberal movement in Russia. On similar terms with the zemstvo in 1870, a city reform was carried out. Let's turn to the diagram. STRUCTURE OF CITY SELF-GOVERNMENT City head Class activation. Work with the scheme. City Council City Duma Small Medium Large Payers of City Duties The representative bodies of city self-government were city dumas, elected for four years from among the city owners of city tax payers. Voters were listed in order of decreasing amount of tax they pay. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, each of which elected a third of the deputies (vowels) to the City Duma. The city duma elected members of the city council and the mayor (executive bodies of city self-government). The competence of the city self-government bodies included issues of improvement, management of school, medical and charitable affairs. Listen to excerpts from the document and determine how the city government depended on the tsarist administration. DOCUMENT From the city situation (1870) Activation of the class. Working with a document. Statement of the problem task. City public administration, “Care and order for urban 1. economy and landscaping is provided to the city public administration, and supervision over its legal execution to the Governor, on the exact basis of the rules of this Regulation. 2. in his resolutions and orders, he cannot leave the circle of cases indicated to him. Any decision made by him contrary to this is null and void. 3. Persons elected to the position of the City Head, as well as those appointed to temporarily fill this position, ... are approved in these ranks: in provincial cities by the Minister of Internal Affairs, and in other cities by the Governor. In general, city governments did not take part in social movement because of the political Writing on the board and in notebooks. Bessoslovnost. Publicity. Competitiveness. Election of judges. the inertia of the merchants. II. Simultaneously with the zemstvo reform in 1864, at the insistence of the public, the government carried out a judicial reform. The reform introduced new principles of legal proceedings. Principles of legal proceedings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Independence of judges from the administration. The main link of the judicial system was the district court with jurors. 12 jurors were chosen by lot for each trial. Candidates for the position of a juror had to satisfy a number of requirements, one of which was a property qualification. Based on the jury's verdict ("guilty", "not guilty", "guilty, but deserves leniency"), the court pronounced a verdict. The highest court was the Senate. The Magistrate's Court decided minor criminal and civil cases. It consisted of one judge, elected for three years by city dumas and zemstvo assemblies. During this period, the judge could not be removed. The administration could not interfere in legal proceedings. Despite the progressiveness of the main provisions of the judicial reform, it remained incomplete: class courts were retained; There were restrictions on the right to be a juror. Let's consider the structure of the court bodies according to the scheme. THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM UNDER THE REFORM OF 1864 Activation of the class. Work with the scheme. Senate Judges Prosecutor 12 jurors Lawyer (property qualification) Justice of the peace City dumas World Court of Zemstvo III. Remember the reasons for the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War and think about what measures were necessary in the army. One of the most important transformations of Alexandrov's is the Activation of the class. Writing in notebooks. Writing in notebooks. Consolidation (5 minutes) of the reign of the military reform, which was carried out from the 1860s to 1874. The Minister of War Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin supervised the preparation and implementation of the reform. The content of the reform is as follows: 1. abolition of the recruiting system for completing the army; 2. reduction in service life: 6 years in the infantry and 7 years in the navy; 3. change in tactics; new military regulations are adopted; 4. improving the leadership of the armed forces, Russia is divided into military districts; 5. rearmament of the army; 6. replenishment of the officer corps with qualified personnel. The military reform was strongly criticized by the conservatives. But already the first serious test was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. showed a high level of combat training of the army. The implementation of reforms required the preparation of IV. qualified specialists, therefore, the government of Alexander II faced the task of radically reforming public education. The change in the education system can be summarized as follows: 1. the introduction of new university (1863) and school (1864) charters; 2. restoration of university autonomy; 3. election of the rector, deans, teachers; 4. creation of a council that decided all the internal affairs of the university; 5. a significant increase in the number of primary and secondary educational institutions, including for children from low-income families. In 1865, "Provisional Rules" on censorship were adopted, according to which preliminary censorship of manuscripts was abolished. But on the whole, the censorship reform turned out to be the most timid of all the reforms of the 6070s. ● consistent nature? ● thoughtful system? ● How can you explain the greater or lesser depth of reforms in various spheres of life in Russia at that time? ● capitalism, and what hindered its development? Contemporaries of Alexander II called the reforms of the 6070s. "great". And indeed, new, modern self-government bodies and courts were created, reforms. What reforms, in your opinion, had the most. Are the reforms of the 6070s? 19th century single What in the reforms made it possible to develop Summarizing. contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, its defense capability, the civil development of self-awareness among the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood. But the reforms were half-hearted: the remnants of serfdom were strong in local government, many noble privileges remained intact, Explanation of homework (2 minutes). reforms did not affect the upper floors of power. Read paragraph 2324 of the textbook "Continuing Reforms". Answer the questions on page 167 of the textbook. (When preparing homework, pay attention to the documents placed in the margins and at the end of the paragraph) Remember dates, historical concepts, personalities of the topic.
The reform of 1861 made the peasants free, solving the most important problem of Russian reality, but, at the same time, it retained many traces of the old system that could become an obstacle to economic development country. The change in the legal status of such a large group of the population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the emancipation of the peasants had to be supplemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of the zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected self-government bodies were created. Having relatively broad powers in the field of economic development, education, health and culture, the zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also sought to prevent the coordination of the activities of the zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very significant role in the development of the Russian provinces. No less decisive changes occurred due to the judicial reform (1864). She, perhaps, most of all stood out from the traditional framework of the Russian political system. All estates, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive legal proceedings, the participation of jurors - all these principles decisively broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. In the direction of liberalizing public life, other steps taken by the state also developed: the softening of censorship rules (1865), the granting of autonomy to universities (1863) and even the military reform (1874), which resulted not only in the introduction of universal military service and reduction in service life, but attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century brought great changes to the life of the country. They allowed Russia to get out of a protracted and deep crisis, significantly accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a fairly long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its possibilities and more and more often it had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. did not receive due completion in the form of a constant movement towards the complete democratization of society. Being a conservative response to the challenge of the time, a reaction "from above", the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The refusal of the government to make these changes led to an increase in radicalism in the social movement, which, in turn, created the conditions for a new growth of the crisis. The contradictions not resolved by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s were superimposed by new ones generated by the post-reform reality and, thereby, increased the conflict in the Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.
Zemstvo reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Honey. assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.
On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to guide households. affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for the organization of food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.
The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.
Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, for the election of vowels of the county zemstvo assembly, created. three elect. congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.
As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liber. landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.
Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.
With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has developed, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched the rise of the "third element" with concern.
Urban reform of 1870 In 1870, following the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out to replace the former class dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter of Letters to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.
The right to elect to the city duma was used by persons who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. At the same time, each curia elected an equal number of councilors to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the big financial and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.
City public self-government was in charge of the decision of households. issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.
The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city duma was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. However, for all its limitations, the urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government during the Ec II. She, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.
Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform carried out on the basis of new judicial charters adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the formal equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court; the independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; the election of certain judicial bodies.
According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general.
The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by county zemstvo assemblies, and in the capitals - by city dumas. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established - not lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 acres of land. At the same time, judges received fairly high salaries - from 2,200 to 9,000 rubles a year,
The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers
The district court was appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. A juror could be a citizen of Russia between the ages of 25 and 70 with an impeccable personal record, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A rather significant property qualification was also established - possession of real estate in the amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Lists of jurors approved. governor.
The Court of Appeal for the District Court was the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict handed down by the jury was not allowed.
The Judicial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons who had a rank higher than the titular adviser (that is, from the VIII class of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated with state. crimes and obeyed with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.
The reform established the publicity of trials, which began to be held openly, the public was admitted to them, newspapers printed reports on courts of public interest. The principle of competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy.
And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal vestiges (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and senior officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.
The reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century, despite their limitations, were of great importance in the fate of Russia and meant the country's advance along the path of capitalist development, along the path of turning a feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one and developing democracy. The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law. Alienation from power for a long time has become characteristic only of radical youth and revolutionary democrats.
The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, by peaceful means. The process of peaceful renewal began in Russia, but it was soon interrupted. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II, the liberator Tsar, was assassinated by members of Narodnaya Volya, which set itself the goal of changing the political system through regicide.
On February 19, 1861, in the State Council, Alexander II signed the Regulations on Reform (17 legislative acts) and the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom.
1. The manifesto provided the peasants with personal freedom and general civil rights.
2. Regulations regulated the issues of allocating land to peasants.
3. According to the reform, the peasants received an established allotment of land, but for a ransom, which was equal to the annual amount of dues, increased by an average of 17 times.
4. Within 49 years, the peasants had to pay this amount with interest.
5. Until the redemption of the land, the peasants continued to be considered temporarily liable to the landowner, they had to bear the old duties - corvée and dues.
The exit of peasants from serfdom exacerbated the problem of land shortage, the allotments of many peasants were very small, which hindered the development of agriculture.
But, despite the limited nature, the peasant reform was of great importance. It gave scope to the development of capitalism in Russia.
The abolition of serfdom in Russia led to transformations in other areas of the country's life.
Zemskaya reform 1864:
1) changed the entire system of local government;
2) Zemstvos were created in the provinces and districts, which were elected bodies of local self-government, consisted of representatives of all estates;
3) a high property qualification and a multi-stage election system ensured the predominance of nobles in the zemstvos;
4) zemstvos did not have political functions, the scope of their activities was limited only to economic issues;
5) zemstvos have played a positive role in local public life.
City reform of 1870:
1) was carried out according to the type of zemstvo.
In the cities, city dumas and city councils were created;
2) city local governments were also in charge mainly of economic issues;
3) the elected mayor headed the city duma and council, coordinated their activities.
Judicial reform of 1864
1. This reform was the most radical of the reforms of 1860-1870.
2. According to the judicial reform, Russia received an updated court, which was based on the principles of bourgeois law, namely, the new court became: classless; vowel; adversarial; independent.
3. The reform introduced the election of some judicial bodies.
4. In accordance with the new judicial system in lawsuits involved a prosecutor and a lawyer.
5. The question of the guilt or innocence of the accused was decided by the jury.
6. The competence of various judicial instances was delineated. The highest court was the Senate.
Military reform:
1) the need for military reform became apparent in connection with the defeat in the Crimean War;
2) it was carried out until 1874. As a result of the military reform, recruiting was abolished; universal military service was introduced, which all men, without distinction of class, who had reached the age of 20, were fit for health service, had to serve; the term of service in the army was significantly reduced: in the infantry instead of 25 years - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years; a system of various benefits began to operate to reduce the service life for persons receiving education, helping parents, etc.
Reforms in the education system:
1) there have been significant changes in the field of education;
2) in 1864, the Charter of gymnasiums and the Regulations on public schools were published, which regulated primary and secondary education;
3) in 1863, the autonomy of universities, liquidated under Nicholas I, was restored.
In 1865, the Provisional Rules on the Press were introduced, which abolished censorship for many printed publications.
The financial reform predetermined the formation of a unified state budget, the planning of which was entrusted to the Ministry of Finance.
The significance of the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. 19th century
The reforms carried out significantly changed the former way of public life and the state. Thus, steps were taken towards the transformation of Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. The continuation of the transformations could be political reforms (draft of constitutional amendments developed by M.T. Loris-Melikov).
But the assassination in 1881 of Alexander II radically changed the course of the government.
