Historically, it has been established that the places of intersection of paths and roads are initially beneficial for the founding of cities, and this happened with the city of Kuwait, the modern capital of the emirate. The history of Kuwait is constant military conflicts and disputes, both with neighbors and with Great Britain.
The complicated history of Kuwait
Modern history of Kuwait begins in 1961, when the emirate gains independence from England. The export of black gold - oil, in the second half of the 20th century makes the emirate one of the richest states in the world. But in the 1980s, in the Iran-Iraq war, Kuwait takes the side of Iraq. As a result, in 1990 the emirate was occupied by Saddam Hussein. After that, they tried to annex Kuwait to Iraq.
During a military operation supported by an international coalition in 1991 Kuwait was released. But retreating, the Iraqi troops blew up all the oil pipelines and set fire to the oil rigs. The approximate damage from the occupation amounted to approximately 50 billion dollars. USA. The country was completely plundered, many people fled to neighboring countries, thousands of Kuwaitis were killed. However, within a few years, Kuwait managed to return to its former prosperity and even surpass it.
Capital of Kuwait
Ancient and modern - the city of Kuwait, the date of foundation of which is 1613. Culture of Kuwait survived many tragedies when the city was robbed and devastated, and only diligence and the desire to survive again raised the city from ruins and ashes, making it even more colorful and richer.
Population of Kuwait
An interesting trend is observed in the emirate, these are 98% urban residents. According to some estimates, the population of the state is 3.5 million people, where only 45% of the indigenous inhabitants of the Kuwaiti Arabs are considered to be those who were able to prove their genealogical roots since 1920. About 35% of the population are from Arab countries, 9% from India and Pakistan, 4% from Iran, and 7% from other countries who do not have Kuwaiti citizenship.
State of Kuwait
The constitution was adopted in 1962, according to which it is a constitutional monarchy. The head of the country is the emir, who in turn appoints the head of government and is vested with the right to dissolve parliament, approve bills, and so on.
Politics of Kuwait
The emir and the unicameral National Assembly "Majlis Al-Umma" are engaged in lawmaking, thus, it is completely controlled by the head of the country. Political parties are banned in the emirate.
Kuwait language
The territory of the country is one dramatic and hot story. In this sense, it reflects the beauty and characteristics of this people, so Arabic is recognized as the official language, but if you speak English, then many will understand you here.
The official name is the State of Kuwait (Daulat al Kuwait - State of Kuwait). Located in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula on the coast of the Persian Gulf, in the southwestern part of Asia. The area is 17.82 thousand km2, the population is 2.111 million people. (2002). The official language is Arabic. The capital is the city of Al-Kuwait (about 1.1 million people, 2000). National holiday - National Day February 25 (1961). The monetary unit is the Kuwaiti dinar (equal to 100 dirhams or 1000 fils).
Member of OPEC (since 1960), UN (since 1963), Arab League, Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf (GCC) (since 1981), WTO, etc.
Sights of Kuwait
Geography of Kuwait
It is located between 46°30' and 48°30' East longitudes and 28°45' and 30°05' North latitudes. In the east it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf is shallow, the currents form a counter-clockwise circuit. Coastline of Kuwait ca. 220 km. In general, the coast is slightly indented, except for the central part, where the narrow Gulf of Kuwait (the only deep-water harbor on the entire western coast of the Persian Gulf) protrudes almost 50 km deep, on the southern coast of which the capital Al Kuwait is located. The coastal zone is mostly shallow. At a short distance from the coast, a chain of low islands belonging to Kuwait stretched: the largest are the heavily swamped Bubiyan and Failaka, and the small ones - Varba, Muskan, Aukha, etc.
Kuwait borders Iraq to the north and west and Saudi Arabia to the south.
The territory of Kuwait is confined to the East Arabian coastal plain and almost all of it is a desert. There are few oases. The low flat relief of the coast is replaced by hilly in the central strip and a low plateau in the extreme southwest, where the highest point of the country (281 m above sea level) is located. The coastal low-lying strip is replete with salt marshes, in the rainy season they turn into salt lakes "sebha". The central and southwestern regions of the country are deeply dissected by a network of channels of temporary streams (wadis). Within the northern half of Kuwait, rocky deserts are common, within the southern half - sandy with dune relief.
The bowels of Kuwait are rich in oil and associated gas, the reserves are of world importance. By most estimates, oil resources make up approximately 10% of the world's oil resources, and at current production rates, they will last more than 100 years.
The climate of Kuwait is tropical and dry. Two seasons are clearly expressed: dry summer (no precipitation occurs from June to September) and wetter winter (with maximum precipitation in January 21-25 mm). The average annual rainfall in Kuwait City is approx. 100 mm. Sometimes there are heavy showers. In the coastal zone, the average temperature in July is +37°С, in January +13°С. Daytime temperatures in summer can reach +50°C in the shade, humidity is low, except for the coast. During the winter, it is usually warm during the day, with night frosts occurring in the interior. Dust storms often rise, and sometimes tornadoes.
There are no permanent streams and sources of fresh water on the territory of Kuwait. From time immemorial, aquifers have been found here and wells have been built. Currently, industrial water desalination is being carried out. The soils are sandy, depleted in mineral and organic compounds. Extremely sparse desert vegetation is represented by stunted shrubs, semi-shrubs, herbs - camel's thorn, some grasses (aristida, etc.), kermek, wormwood, haze. Occasionally there is a gada shrub up to 2 m high and trees such as acacia, mimosa, tal, cider. Date palms and vegetable crops are grown in oases.
The animal world is poor. The most numerous rodents are gerbils, jerboas, and mice. Reptiles are more diverse, occasionally there are foxes, hyenas, jackals, goitered gazelles, in the southwestern most elevated regions - wild sheep, antelopes. The avifauna is represented by wild pigeons, larks, bustards, gulls, eagles, falcons, hawks and other birds, incl. waterfowl. In coastal waters there are up to 250 species of fish.
Population of Kuwait
The average annual population growth rate in 2002 was 3.33%, in the 1980s. the urban population growth rate was 4.3%, rural 6.2%. Population dynamics include an influx of immigrants from other countries. In 1985 foreigners made up 60% of the population.
Birth rate 21.8%, mortality 2.46%, infant mortality 10.87 people. per 1000 newborns, life expectancy 76.46 years, incl. men - 75.56, women - 77.39 (2002). Sex and age structure of the population (2002): 0-14 years - 28.3% (men 304.2 thousand people, women 292.9 thousand); 15-64 years old - 69.2% (934.1 thousand men, 527.3 thousand women); 65 years and older - 2.5% (34.1 thousand men, 18.9 thousand women). Urban population approx. 97.6% (2000). Illiterate 7.1% of the population over the age of 15 (2000).
Ethnic composition: 45% - Arabs of Kuwait (Kuwaitis), 35% - the rest of the Arabs, 9% - immigrants from South Asia, 4% - Iranians, 7% - other groups. Languages: Arabic, English is widely used.
The majority of the population (85%) is Muslim. Of these, 70% are Sunni Muslims, 30% are Shiites. Christians, Hindus and other denominations - approx. 15%.
History of Kuwait
From the 7th c. AD Kuwait was part of the Arab Caliphate. From the 13th century to con. 15th c. the territory of Kuwait, then called Kurain, was ruled by sheikhs of local Arab tribes. All R. 17th century Kurane was formally included in the Ottoman Empire, but strong local power remained. In 1680, during the reign of Sheikh Barraq al-Hamid (1669-82), the fortified port city of Kuwait was built. Qurayn reached its peak during the reign of Sheikh Sadun al-Hamid (1691-1722). In 1756, Sheikh Sabah ibn Jaber al-Sabah united all the tribes into the Emirate of Kuwait. To con. 18th century in Central Arabia, the state of the Saudis strengthened, but he failed to conquer Kuwait. In 1777, the British persuaded the Emir of Kuwait, Abdullah ibn Sabah al-Sabah, to establish friendly relations, but the rulers of Kuwait did not agree to treaty relations with Great Britain. In 1793, a trading post of the East India Company was founded in El Kuwait. In the beginning. 1870s Kuwait received the status of a kazy (county) of the Basor vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, and the emir was recognized as the governor of the sultan. Kuwait attracted the special attention of European powers in con. 19th century in connection with the German plan to stretch the Baghdad railway to the port of Kuwait. Sheikh Mubarak ibn Sabah al-Sabah, seeking to protect the country from the Turkish invasion, in 1899 signed a secret agreement with Great Britain, according to which the latter was responsible for Kuwait's foreign policy. Kuwait actually turned into a British protectorate. In October 1913, an Anglo-Kuwaiti treaty was concluded, according to which Great Britain was endowed with exclusive rights to explore and extract oil in Kuwait. In November 1914, Great Britain recognized Kuwait as an independent principality under its protectorate.
In 1918-22, Kuwait became involved in border conflicts with Najd (where the Saudis ruled) and Iraq. In December 1922, through the mediation of Great Britain, an agreement was signed on the transfer of part of the territory of Nejd to Kuwait and Iraq and on the creation of border Kuwait-Saudi and Iraqi-Saudi zones (since 1942 received the status of a neutral zone), free for nomads. In April 1923, the British contributed to the inclusion of the islands belonging to Iraq at the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab River into Kuwait. Since 1927, Kuwait has effectively become a British colony. On June 19, 1961, Great Britain renounced its rights in Kuwait and the independence of the State of Kuwait was proclaimed. Six days later, Iraq declared its sovereignty over these lands. Britain and Saudi Arabia provided military assistance in protecting the integrity of Kuwait by deploying troops to the Kuwait-Iraq border. In August 1962, by decision of the League of Arab States, British troops replaced Sudanese, Jordanian and Egyptian troops. Relations between Iraq and Kuwait improved only after 1963. In 1966, the Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone was divided in half between the countries. In the 1960s and 70s. Kuwait quickly enriched itself through oil exports, directing the proceeds to boost the economy and the living standards of the population, help Arab countries, in foreign investment. In the 1970s most of the oil industry was nationalized. The economic success of Kuwait contributed to immigration, already in the 1970s. the majority of the population were from other countries. In 1976, the emir dissolved parliament and some articles of the constitution were suspended. A new National Assembly was elected in 1981, then dissolved in 1986. On August 2, 1990, a hundred thousandth Iraqi army invaded Kuwait, and Iraq announced the annexation of Kuwait. Hundreds of thousands of people fled the country. 700 oil wells were set on fire. The fires had severe consequences for the environment. On January 17, 1991, based on the decision of the UN Security Council, an action began to liberate Kuwait by a coalition of 29 countries led by the United States, which was successfully completed by February 26. After the restoration of the power of the al-Sabah dynasty, mass arrests took place in the country, thousands of Palestinians were deported. In order to guarantee its security, Kuwait at the beginning. 1990s signed agreements on military cooperation with the United States, Great Britain, France, Russian Federation. Kuwait went to expand the American military presence on its territory, the deployment of an American brigade of troops, the basing of the US Air Force and other allies. As early as July 1991, Kuwait resumed oil exports. In 1993, export earnings exceeded pre-war levels. The first post-war parliamentary elections were held in 1992. During the American military action to overthrow the Hussein regime in Iraq, Kuwait provided its territory for the troops of the anti-Iraq coalition. Emir Sheikh Jaber al-Ahmed al-Jaber al-Sabah has been at the head of state since December 31, 1977. The government is headed by Crown Prince Sheikh Saad al-Abdallah al-Salem al-Sabah.
State structure and political system of Kuwait
Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy. The Constitution of 1962 is in force. Administrative division - 3 governorships. The largest cities (thousand people): El-Kuwait, Salmiya (about 130), Mina-el-Ahmadi (El-Ahmadi) (about 120).
Principles of state administration: power is entrusted to the emir, who exercises it through the government. The emir can formulate policies and laws, can veto laws passed by parliament. Laws come into force only after the approval of Parliament. Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in government ministers, with the exception of the prime minister. Individual freedoms, equality of citizens before the law, freedom of expression are guaranteed.
The highest body of legislative power is the National Assembly. The highest body of executive power is the Council of Ministers. The head of state is the emir.
The head of the supreme body of executive power is the prime minister.
The National Assembly (Parliament) consists of 50 deputies elected for 4 years. Only men who settled in Kuwait before 1920 or naturalized more than 30 years ago can become deputies. Suffrage is vested in literate male citizens who naturalized more than 30 years ago, or Kuwaitis living in the country since 1920 and earlier, and their descendants aged at least 21 years who do not serve in the army and police. The entire Cabinet of Ministers is also included in the National Assembly ex officio. According to the Constitution, the emir appoints the crown prince as head of government, the emir appoints members of the government (on the recommendation of the prime minister).
The most famous political figures in Kuwait include representatives of the al-Sabah family (who have ruled since 1756). They headed the state from the day of its foundation, held the post of prime minister. Under their leadership, the country has made significant progress in development.
Political parties are banned in Kuwait, but there are political movements: Islamic (moderate Islamic Constitutional Movement, Shiite National Islamic Coalition, etc.), democratic (Kuwaiti Democratic Forum, etc.), Arab nationalists.
In Kuwait, until recently, the most important role in the economy has been played by the state; in the main sectors, private capital is involved in auxiliary projects. The private sector has been expanding somewhat in recent years. Among the leading organizations of the business community are the Kuwait Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Kuwait Federation of Industry. A center for the development of industrial exports has been established with the participation of business circles and the state. The Kuwaiti Commercial Markets Association in the form of a private company, the United Real Estate Company, and the Mobile Communications Company are widely known. Private investors own two commercial banks: Al-Ahly and Kuwait Real Estate Bank, a number of insurance companies, more than 60% of the capital of the Kuwait Cement Company, more than 80% of the Kuwait Metal Pipe Company.
There are a large trade union association, the General Federation of Workers of Kuwait (WFRK), which is part of the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions and the World Federation of Trade Unions, the Federation of Oil and Petrochemical Industry Workers, etc. The WFRK has its own print organ - the weekly magazine "Al-Amal" ("Worker") . The elements of civil society include the practice of discussing public affairs in informal meetings - "divans". The country has intelligentsia, the working class, entrepreneurs, civil servants.
The domestic policy of Kuwait is formed on the basis of achieving agreement between the authorities and society, with the leading role of the emir's power, aimed at maintaining social stability, accelerated economic development. Foreign policy is aimed at ensuring national political and economic security, peaceful settlement of international problems.
Armed Forces of Kuwait to ser. 1990s counted approx. 12 thousand people They consist of an army, including Air Force, fleet, there are security forces. In 2002, there were 368 tanks, 81 combat aircraft, several warships. Kuwait spends heavily on strengthening armed forces. The military budget in 2000/01 was 8.7% of GDP.
Kuwait has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR in 1963).
Economy of Kuwait
The economic prosperity of Kuwait is associated with oil production. Kuwait's GDP, calculated at the purchasing power parity of currencies, amounted to $30.9 billion; GDP per capita - $15,100 (2001). Real GDP growth 4% (2001). The share of Kuwait in the world economy is small, much less than 1%, but Kuwait provides approx. 10% of world oil production. Labor force approx. 1.3 million people (more than 1/2 of the able-bodied population are immigrants). Unemployment 1.6% (1996). Inflation 2.7% (2002).
Sectoral structure of the economy in terms of contribution to GDP (2000): industry 60%, services 40%, agriculture 0%. The structure of GDP by employment (1995): extractive industry 2.06%, manufacturing 5.36%, agriculture 2.05%, construction 15.41%, the rest of the population is employed in various sectors of the service sector.
Large oil fields in the country were discovered as early as 1938, but their development began only after World War II. Kuwait now ranks third in the Middle East in terms of oil production (after Saudi Arabia and Iran). Large state-owned companies operate in the industry - the Kuwait Oil Company, the Kuwait National Oil Company. Approx. 100 million tons of oil (2000 - 99.08 million tons) and approx. 9 billion m3 of gas. In 2001, oil production exceeded the OPEC quota by 2.14 million barrels. per day.
The leading branches of the manufacturing industry are oil refining and petrochemistry. The largest oil refineries are Mina al-Ahmadi, Mina Abdallah, Shuaiba (refining 400,000, 245,000 and 155,000 barrels per day, respectively). In 2000, refining capacity exceeded 720 thousand barrels. in a day. Oils, gasoline, liquefied gas are produced. The petrochemistry of Kuwait has a modern, developed structure, covers domestic needs and creates export surpluses of products. One of the world's largest petrochemical complexes has been created in Ash-Shuaib, capable of producing approx. 600 thousand tons of sulfur, 165 thousand tons of sulfuric acid, 1 million tons of nitrogen fertilizers, 790 thousand tons of urea, 650 thousand tons of ethylene, 450 thousand tons of polyethylene, 350 thousand tons of ethylene glycol, aromatic resins, etc. Energy in Kuwait is based on fossil fuels. Approx. 31.6 billion kWh of electricity, which far exceeds domestic consumption.
The building materials industry and construction are well developed (in 1999, about 950 thousand tons of cement, 302.8 thousand m3 of bricks, etc.), the production of consumer goods, and the food industry (flour-grinding, confectionery, etc.) are developed. Industrial desalination sea water before the Iraqi occupation was approx. 600 million liters per day. With the improvement of the quality of education, such a science-intensive industry as the electronics industry is also developing.
Limited arable land (0.4% of the country's territory) and water resources significantly limit the opportunities for agricultural development. Livestock is bred and vegetables are grown in the country. Fishing is developed (production satisfies 25% of domestic demand), shrimp fishing.
There are no railways in Kuwait. The length of paved roads is 3590 km (1999). Pipelines include 877 km of oil pipelines, 40 km of pipelines for oil products, 165 km of gas pipelines. Maritime transport has 202 ships (1997). Vessels with a gross tonnage of 1 thousand tons and above - 38, including 19 oil tankers, 6 gas tankers, 13 transport ships, their total gross tonnage is 3.63 million tons. Major ports: Shuvaikh, Shuaiba, Doha, oil port Mina el Ahmadi. In 1999, 2.88 million tons of cargo was accepted by sea, 7 million tons were sent. There are several airports in the country. Kuwait International Airport is designed for 5 million passengers a year. In 1999, 1.86 million passengers arrived and 1.83 million departed.
The country has modern system communications, incl. satellite. There are more than 412 thousand fixed telephone lines and 210 thousand mobile phones (1997), 200 thousand Internet users (2002). The governmental Kuwait Information Agency (since 1976), the Kuwait Radio Broadcasting Service, and Kuwait Television operate. Mass circulations are published apprx. 10 daily and weekly newspapers, several magazines. The largest publication is the monthly magazine "Al-Arabi" ("Arab", about 350 thousand copies), covering political, scientific and other problems.
Trade and the service sector are traditional areas of economic activity of the population. Tourism is developing. In general, about 1.5 million people visit Kuwait a year, most of them come to work. In 2000, 273 thousand people stayed in hotels.
Modern socio-economic policy combines the policy of redistributing oil revenues for the purpose of industrialization and social security of the population with efforts to diversify the economy and remove an excessive burden from the country's budget. Various types of social benefits are paid. The monetary system consists of a limited number of banks and is divided into commercial and specialized, as well as insurance companies. The Central Bank maintains a stable exchange rate of the national currency with the help of foreign exchange reserves, the currency regime is generally liberal. In Kuwait, the securities market and the stock exchange are well developed. After the collapse of stock prices in 1982, measures were taken to strictly regulate the stock market. 90% of export foreign exchange earnings and 75% of state budget revenues are generated by the oil industry. Taxes still play a minor role. Revenues were $11.5 billion, expenses $17.2 billion (2001/02). The main budget expenditure items are: defense and security 32.6%, transfers to state organizations - 31%, education - 14.7%, energy and water supply - 11.2% (2000). The external debt of the country is 6.9 billion US dollars (2000).
The standard of living of the population of Kuwait is quite high. The average wage in industry is 8757.17 USD per year (2000). In 1997, the GDP was 9212 million cu. dinars, final private consumer spending - 4344 million dinars, net savings - 3093 million dinars.
The country's trade balance is active. Export (2001, billion US dollars) 16.2, import 7.4. Main export commodities: oil and oil products, fertilizers, shrimp. Main export partners: Japan (23%), USA (14%), South Korea (13%), Singapore (7%), Netherlands (6%), Pakistan (6%). Industrial goods, foodstuffs, etc. are imported. Main import partners: USA (12%), Japan (8%), Great Britain (8%), Germany (7%), China (5%), France (4%).
Science and culture of Kuwait
In 1936, only 2 schools worked in the country, and in the 1990s. there were already more than 1000 of them. Education is free, from school to university. In addition to schools, there is a system of specialized colleges - technical, commercial, medical, religious, etc. The total number of teachers of all forms of education is 40.9 thousand, students 474.2 thousand (1998/99). 7% of the population over the age of 15 is illiterate. In 1966, the Kuwait University was opened, which became the largest educational institution in the Persian Gulf. In addition, hundreds of students are studying abroad. Great efforts are being made in the development of national science. The Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research has been established, where work is being carried out in various areas: mineralogy, ecology, development of agriculture in arid zones and others, with the involvement of specialists from all over the world.
National culture is represented by the Museum of Kuwait with collections of exhibits on history, archeology, ethnography, and special architecture. On Failaka Island there are remains of a Greek temple from the 4th century BC. Local culture is also represented by folklore art, sacred music orchestras, camel racing, falconry. Muslim traditions and customs, the Ramadan fast, the ban on alcohol, etc. have an important cultural significance.
The state religion in Kuwait is Islam (Article 2 Part I of the Constitution), Sharia is proclaimed the basis of legal proceedings. In Art. 12 part II of the constitution stipulates the obligation of the state to protect the heritage of Islam and Arab culture. However, Art. 35 part III formally declares freedom of religion, provided that the practice of religious worship does not conflict with the policy of the country's leadership and moral standards.
At least 80% of believers are adherents of Islam (about 70% of Muslims adhere to the Sunni direction, 30% to the Shiite direction). In addition, there are representatives of Hinduism, Christianity (Syrian and Lebanese immigrants, Americans and Europeans), Zoroastrianism (Parsis) in the country.
De facto, there is discrimination based on religion in the country. The Shiite population has fewer opportunities to perform religious rites (despite the fact that Shiites make up 30% of the number of believers, only 30-40 Shiite mosques function in Kuwait against about 1,200 Sunni ones), receive religious education (there are no independent religious schools for Shiites, which forces them to receive similar education in Iran) and career growth in government structures.
At the same time, the situation shows some tendency towards gradual improvement, which, in particular, was reflected in the satisfaction in 2003 of the request of the Shiite population for the establishment of the Shiite Court of Cassation for Family and Marriage and the start of construction of a number of new mosques for Shiites. The organization representing the Shiites in politics is the Islamic National Alliance.
Although there is no open conflict between Sunnis and Shiites, some danger of Shiite discontent remains. It is due to such external factors as instability in neighboring Iraq with its significant Shiite population and the situation around Iran, which, in the event of a significant aggravation of relations with the United States, may try to destabilize internal position from a key regional ally of Washington, as was already the case during the Iran-Iraq war, when a Hezbollah cell operating in Kuwait staged a series of terrorist attacks, including against the United States Embassy.
Representatives of faiths not mentioned in the Qur'an (Buddhists, Baha'is, Hindus and Sikhs) are not allowed to build places of worship, but the right to worship at home is not limited in any way. It is noted that foreign workers are treated better by employers in case of conversion to Islam.
Kuwait is a major sponsor of Muslim missionary work: with the financial support of the government of the country and its citizens, various funds and educational structures work in a number of states (primarily Asian and African) to help strengthen the position of Islam.
Kuwait is located on the Asian mainland and the occupied territory of Kuwait is 17,818. The population of Kuwait is 3,051,000 people. The capital of Kuwait is located in Kuwait City. The form of government in Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy. The language is spoken in Kuwait. Who Kuwait borders on: Saudi Arabia, Iraq.Kuwait is one of the most ancient areas that was inhabited by people. Archaeologists in the country have discovered areas of tribal habitation, which are dated to the fifth millennium BC. Once on these lands there were settlements of the Babylonians, Sumerians, Greeks and Persians, trade routes passed here and local original cultures developed. According to historical materials, earlier the territory of Kuwait was not deserted and arid - springs murmured here and green forests rustled, and instead of sands there were settlements and inns. After the advent of Islam, the country became completely different - it turned into a stronghold of Muslims in the Persian Gulf.
Now there is only one large city in the state - the capital of Kuwait. The ancient fort, which served as a protection for the Bedouins and merchants, has become a flourishing cultural, commercial and entertainment center of the entire region for several decades. The city is a colorful mixture of Islamic traditions and modern architecture, and its most famous sights are almost all young. In the capital, you can see the unique National Museum, which contains an amazing collection of Islamic art. The Liberation Tower is the tallest TV tower in the entire region and has an unusual architecture, so it is rightfully considered a cultural heritage, even if its age is quite insignificant. Previously, the capital was surrounded by a wall, which was destroyed half a century ago to make room for new buildings. But despite this, the gates that served as entrances to this impregnable fortress remained intact. Kuwait City is a picturesque city surrounded by beaches and is gradually becoming a popular destination for tourists, although the recent volatile military situation still puts many people off.
Failaka Island was inhabited in the Stone Age. In subsequent centuries, this place served as a strategically important object, so there were often outposts and garrisons of many countries and empires of antiquity. That is why an archaeological reserve was created here, which is the pride of Kuwait - the historical value of the Faylak finds cannot be overestimated. Some time ago, during the war with Iraq, the Kuwaitis used this island for their base, but then it again became a cultural heritage site.
The city of Al-Ahmadi, which was built in the middle of the 20th century, got its name in honor of Sheikh Ahmad. This entire territory belongs to the local oil company, and the only attraction of this place is a museum that tells about the formation and development of the oil industry in Kuwait, as well as the Exhibition Center. In addition, near the city there is a blooming green park, spread out among the desert.
The "place of military glory" for every patriot of the country is Al-Jasra. It was here that the emir in 1920 defeated the troops of the Saudis. This city is home to the famous Red Fort, which played an important role in that memorable battle, as well as in Operation Desert Storm, when the Iraqi group was completely defeated. Very close to the city are salt marshes, which are part of the Natural Reserve, with total area 250 hectares. This place is under state protection, as it has a unique ecocenosis: 410 migratory and 220 resident species of birds live here. A little north of Al Jasra is the fishing village of Doha, where life is not much different from the life of a century ago.
KUWAIT, State of Kuwait (Daulat al-Kuwait).
General information
Kuwait is a state in Western Asia. It is located in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula and the islands of the Persian Gulf (Bubyan, Failaka, Muskan, Varba, etc.). It borders Iraq to the north and west and Saudi Arabia to the south. In the east it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf (the length of the coastline is 499 km). The area is 17.8 thousand km 2. Population 2906.7 thousand people (2008). The capital is Kuwait City. The official language is Arabic. The monetary unit is the Kuwaiti dinar. Administrative-territorial division: 6 governorates (table).
Kuwait is a member of the UN (1963), IMF (1962), IBRD (1962), OPEC (1960), Arab League (1961), Organization of the Islamic Conference (1969), WTO (1995), Gulf Cooperation Council (1981).
A. I. Voropaev.
Political system
Kuwait is a unitary state. The constitution was approved on 11/11/1962. The form of government is a constitutional monarchy.
The head of state is the emir. Legislative power belongs to the emir and the National Assembly, executive power - to the emir and the Council of Ministers. Kuwait is a "hereditary emirate" of the al-Sabah family. The emir appoints the crown prince. His candidacy must be approved by members of the ruling family and approved by the National Assembly. If the National Assembly rejects the candidature proposed by the Emir, the Emir is obliged to present three other candidates from the ruling family, and the National Assembly to choose one of them.
The legislature is a unicameral parliament (National Assembly). It consists of 50 deputies elected by direct secret ballot, as well as 15 members of the government ex officio. The term of office is 4 years.
The emir appoints the prime minister and on his recommendation the ministers. He also dismisses them. The cabinet is collectively responsible to the emir for the policy pursued; each minister is individually responsible for the activities of his ministry. The crown prince has traditionally been appointed head of government, since 2003 the posts of crown prince and prime minister have been separated.
Political parties are banned in Kuwait.
Nature
Relief. The shores are mostly low-lying, leveled, the only large bay of Kuwait protrudes inland for 40 km. Off the northern coast there is a group of low-lying deltaic islands (Bubyan, Varba, etc.), marshy, bordered by shallows. Off Kuwait Bay is the only inhabited island of Failaka. Most of the territory is a desert plain (height up to 290 m - the highest point of the country), falling towards the Persian Gulf. In the north, rocky deserts, crossed by deep dry channels of wadi (the largest El-Batin - along the western border of the country) prevail, in the central and southern parts - sandy deserts with areas of dune relief.
Geological structure and minerals. In tectonic terms, the territory of Kuwait is located within the northeastern margin of the Precambrian Arabian platform, in the Basra-Kuwait basin. The folded-metamorphic basement of the platform is overlain by Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonate and terrigenous deposits of the sedimentary cover about 9 km thick, which are folded into a series of large gentle anticlines forming the so-called Kuwait arc or swell. The thickness of the Cretaceous (up to 2000-2400 m) and Paleogene (up to 800-900 m) deposits is increased compared to the adjacent areas of the platform. The main mineral wealth of the country is oil, according to the proven reserves of which Kuwait ranks 7th in the world (2008). The most important part of the section in terms of oil and gas content is Cretaceous sandstones with high reservoir properties, occurring at a depth of 970-3000 m. The entire territory of Kuwait with the adjacent water area belongs to the Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. The main giant oil fields are included in the Bolshoy Burgan group of oil fields; The deposits of Er-Raudatain, Sabriya, and others are also large in terms of reserves. Kuwait also has deposits of natural combustible gas, cement raw materials (limestone), and rock salt.
Climate. Kuwait has a tropical desert climate. The annual amount of precipitation is 75-150 mm, rain falls mainly in the form of showers in the winter season. In some years, only 25 mm of precipitation falls. Most of the year the weather is stable and hot (average temperatures in July are 36-37°С, the absolute maximum is 52°С); the most favorable time is winter (average temperatures in December - January 12-14°C). Occasionally, nighttime temperatures drop to 0°C. From May to October, dry northwestern winds (shimal) blow, accompanied by dust and sand storms.
Inland waters. In Kuwait, there is an acute problem of water supply. There are no permanent streams or lakes. There are underground aquifers: in the north (Er-Raudatain) - freshwater; in the south (Es-Subaihiya) - mineralized to varying degrees. The main source of water supply is desalinated sea water (up to 231 million m 3 of water per year); in 1953 a complete technological cycle of water desalination was created; Kuwait occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of the capacity of desalination plants. The annual water withdrawal is 0.9 km 3: 54% of the water goes to the needs of agriculture (irrigated land occupies less than 1% of the territory), 44% - to domestic water supply, 2% is consumed by industrial enterprises.
Soils, flora and fauna. The flora includes only 234 species of higher vascular plants. The sparse desert vegetation is represented mainly by salt-tolerant species of grasses and semi-shrubs (sveda, kermek, camel's thorn, haze), cereals (aristida) and low-growing shrubs (reptile, desert acacia), after rains, ephemera appear for a short time. Tamariks grow in the coastal strip. Rare oases with date palm, crops of corn and millet. Soils - desert stony (including gypsum-bearing), sandy desert and salt marshes (on the coast).
Of the mammals (21 species inhabit, the Arabian oryx is endangered), there are pygmy gerbils, tarbagan, goitered gazelle, dromedary, sand gazelle, fennec fox, jackal, striped hyena, etc. 35 species of nesting birds are known (including 7 endangered disappearance); on the coasts - wintering places for waterfowl and near-water birds of the Northern Hemisphere (pink flamingos, cormorants, various ducks, etc.). Of the terrestrial reptiles (about 30 species), snakes (boa constrictors, efas, vipers), agamas, geckos, lizards are common, and of marine - sea snakes and turtles. The waters of the Persian Gulf are rich in fish (about 250 species; sharks, tuna, mackerel, sardines, horse mackerel); shrimps, lobsters, lobsters, etc. are widespread; edible shellfish (oysters, mussels), as well as pearl mussels, are abundant.
Serious damage to the nature of Kuwait was caused by military conflicts with Iraq, which provoked environmental pollution and the destruction of desert landscapes. After the end of the last conflict in a number of areas, measures were taken to restore the natural environment and create new protected natural areas. Their network (about 2% of the area of Kuwait, 2004) includes the scientific reserve station Es-Sulaibiya (the oldest protected area in the country, 1975), Cape Ez-Zour National Park, 3 marine parks, etc.
Lit .: Countries and peoples. Foreign Asia. General review. Southwest Asia. M., 1979; All Asia. Gazetteer. M., 2003.
N. N. Alekseeva.
Population
The majority of the population (71.2%) of Kuwait are Arabs: Kuwaitis - 57.8% (including Bedouins - 10%), Iraqis - 3.8%, Levantines - 3.6%, Egyptians - 2.2%, Palestinians - 1.9%, Yemenis - 0.9% (including Mahra - 0.7%), Omani Arabs - 0.5%, Syrians - 0.5%. Kurds account for 10.6%, Persians - 4.6%, Armenians - 0.9%; immigrants from South Asia - 8% (including Malayali - 7.5%, Punjabis - 0.2%), Filipinos - 3.4%. Among others - Assyrians, British, Americans, French, Chinese.
The population of Kuwait in 1961-2008 increased by more than 9 times (321.6 thousand people in 1961; 1.87 million people in 1998; 2.2 million in 2005) due to the high birth rate (21.9 per 1000 inhabitants) significantly exceeding the death rate (2.4 per 1000 inhabitants), and a massive influx of foreign labor since the 1950s, after the start of industrial exploitation of oil fields (the balance of external migration is 16.4 per 1000 inhabitants; 2008). Fertility rate 2.8 children per woman; infant mortality 9.2 per 1000 live births (2008). The age structure is dominated by the working-age population (15-64 years old) - 70.6%, the proportion of children (under 15 years old) - 26.5%, persons over 65 years old - 2.9%. The average age of the population is 26.1 years (2008). Average life expectancy is 77.6 years (men - 76.4, women - 78.7 years). There are 153 men for every 100 women. The average population density is 163.3 people/km2 (2008). The most densely populated are the eastern regions of the country (the average population density in the governorate of Hawally is 6372.5 people / km 2). About 96% of the country's population lives in cities. Largest cities (thousands of people, 2008): Jalib al-Shuyuh 177.9, Sabah es-Salim 141.7, Es-Salimiya 134.5, Al-Qurain 131.1.
Economically active population 2.1 million (of which about 80% are foreign workers; 2007). According to official figures, the unemployment rate is 2.2% (2004).
A. I. Voropaev.
Religion
The majority of the population is Muslim (85%), including up to 65% Sunnis and about 30-35% Shnt-Imamits. There are small communities of other currents and persuasions in Islam, including Wahhabis. More than 110 Sunni mosques, 41 Shiite mosques are registered, hundreds of Shiite prayer houses (husseiniya) operate. Due to the massive influx of immigrants from the Arab countries of the Near and Middle East, India, Pakistan, the number of other faiths is growing, making up to 15% of the inhabitants of Kuwait (2008, estimate). Religious minorities are represented by Catholics (6.16%), various Protestant denominations (2.14%), followers of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhs, Bahais, etc.
The state religion of Kuwait is Sunni Islam. Missionary activities of other faiths among Muslims are prohibited. Of the Christian churches in Kuwait, the Roman Catholic (there is 1 apostolic vicariate, 4 parishes), Evangelical, Anglican, Coptic, Antiochian Orthodox, Greek Catholic and Armenian Apostolic churches are officially registered. There are various unregistered religious associations.
Historical outline
Kuwait from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. Archaeological excavations on the island of Failaka at the entrance to Kuwait Bay indicate that the territory of modern Kuwait was inhabited from the 3rd millennium BC and was part of the state of Dilmun. In the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC, it was subordinated to Babylonia, in the middle of the 8th century - to the New Assyrian state (see Assyria), and in 626 it returned to the rule of Babylon. In 539 BC, it was annexed to the Persian state, conquered in the 4th century BC by Alexander the Great. Since the end of the 4th century BC, it has been part of the Seleucid state (on the island of Failaka, the remains of a fortress city of this period were found, as well as the ruins of a Greek temple and a workshop for the production of terracotta figurines). Subsequently, the territory of Kuwait was part of the Arab state of Harakena, which arose around 129 BC on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and fought against Parthia. From the 7th century AD under the rule of the Caliphate. After the capture of Baghdad in 1258 by the Mongol troops and until the end of the 15th century, the territory of Kuwait was ruled by sheikhs of local Arab tribes. In the 1st half of the 16th century, the Portuguese tried to establish themselves here, but were expelled by Sultan Suleiman I Kanuni. From the middle of the 16th century, a struggle between the Ottomans and the Safavids began for the lands adjacent to the northern coast of the Persian Gulf. In the 16th century, the territory of Kuwait was finally conquered by the Ottoman Empire, later it became part of the Basor vilayet. The local ruler received the title of kaymakam (governor) and had the right to conduct an independent internal politics. In the 2nd half of the 17th century, in the context of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of Kuwait became part of the Banu Khalid emirate (nominally dependent on the Turkish sultan), founded by the Anase tribal association (Anaiza, Aniza), which came from the interior of the Arabian Peninsula. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Banu-Atban association, related to the Anaza, using the patronage of the Emir, settled in Banu Khalid, where it was divided into several branches (the territory of Kuwait was occupied by the al-Sabah branch around 1716). In the last quarter of the 18th century, as a result of the weakening of the Banu Khalid in the fight against the Wahhabi Saudi emirate, the Banu Atban gained independence. In 1756, Sheikh Sabah ibn Jaber al-Sabah (1752-62) united all the tribes living in Kuwait under his rule and formed the emirate of Kuwait (until 1937 the rulers of Kuwait bore the title of sheikhs).
Under his successor, Sheikh Abdullah I ibn Sabah al-Sabah (1762, according to other sources, 1776-1814), Kuwait became the center of intermediary trade between India and the West, which contributed to the growth of the country's welfare and an increase in its merchant fleet. Pearl fishing was also an important source of income for the emirate. The population of the interior was mainly engaged in nomadic pastoralism.
The Sabah dynasty pursued a flexible foreign policy, maintaining peace with the Ottoman rulers of Basra and the Saudis. In border disputes with neighbors, the sheikhs of Kuwait often turned to residents of the British East India Company (OIC) for support, which began to penetrate into the Persian Gulf region from the 1760s. In the 1790s, with the support of the British fleet, the emirate repulsed the invasion of the Saudi troops. In 1793, in exchange for military assistance, the British government obtained permission from the sheikh to establish an OIC trading post in the city of El Kuwait. In 1798-99 the company defended Kuwait from Wahhabi attacks. British positions in Kuwait were strengthened under Muhammad al-Sabah al-Sabah (1892, according to other sources, 1893-1896). The tone of government policy was set by the brother of the Sheikh's wife, Yusuf Ibrahim, who was associated with the OIC. He granted the British-Indian Steamship Company the opportunity to operate regular services to El Kuwait, as well as the right to free production and sale of pearls. Mubarak ibn Sabah, half-brother of Muhammad al-Sabah al-Sabah, dissatisfied with the latter's pro-British policy, organized a conspiracy in May 1896 and seized power (became known as Mubarak al-Lahab ibn Sabah al-Sabah the Great; ruled until 1915). The new ruler sought to create an independent state and expand its borders. At the end of the 1890s, a number of reforms were carried out in Kuwait: a post office and telegraph, a mubarakiya (secular school for boys) and a hospital were opened, Turkish specialists were recruited to train the Kuwaiti military. However, the country's economy was made dependent on British capital. The British occupied a dominant position in various areas of business, owned 1/7 of the cultivated land.
In 1897-99, the contradictions between Kuwait and the Ottoman Empire escalated, threatening to seize the possessions of the Sabahs in Iran and sent troops to this region. The sheikh was forced to turn to Britain for help. In January 1899, a secret agreement was concluded between Mubarak and the British resident, according to which the government of Kuwait undertook not to enter into relations with other states without the consent of Great Britain.
Kuwait in the 20th - early 21st century. In 1900, the contradictions between Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire intensified in connection with the granting by the Sultan in 1899 to Deutsche Bank of the right of preliminary concession for the construction of the Baghdad railway, which, as originally planned, was to pass through the territory of Kuwait. The arrival of the German mission in Kuwait was perceived by London as a threat to its positions in the region. In September 1901, an agreement was signed between Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire on the status quo in Kuwait, according to which the British government undertook not to declare a protectorate over Kuwait, and Turkey - not to send troops to its territory. However, in 1902, the sultan, with the support of the German government, demanded from Mubarak recognition of the supreme power of the Ottoman Empire and consent to the presence of the Turkish garrison in the country. In response to these actions, Great Britain in 1903 brought its ships into El Kuwait, and the British Foreign Secretary, Lord H. C. Lansdowne, officially announced the contents of the Anglo-Kuwait Treaty of 1899 for the first time. In 1904, a British political agent was appointed to Kuwait to comply with its terms. ; Great Britain received the right to service the postal service in the emirate. On July 29, 1913, Turkey signed an agreement with Great Britain, according to which Kuwait retreated into the zone of British influence, but remained part of the Ottoman Empire as an autonomous region. In November 1914, a new treaty was concluded between Great Britain and Kuwait, which turned Kuwait into a principality independent of the Ottoman Empire under British protectorate.
By the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of the activities of British entrepreneurs, industrial production arose in Kuwait, which coexisted with traditional crafts. After the discovery of oil in Kuwait in 1910, the emirate became the object of rivalry between Great Britain and the United States. In 1913 Great Britain received exclusive rights to explore and extract oil in Kuwait.
In 1917-22, Kuwait came into conflict with the Saudis over territorial disputes. In the spring of 1920, the Kuwaiti troops were defeated at the Battle of El Jahra. From April 1920 to October 1921, most of the country was occupied by the Saudi army. In November - December 1922, at the Uqair Conference, mediated by London, the parties to the conflict signed an agreement on the transfer of part of the territory of Kuwait to the Saudis and the creation of a Kuwaiti-Saudi border zone (since 1942, the Neutral Zone). In April 1923, the British contributed to the inclusion in Kuwait of a number of islands located at the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab River.
Despite the pro-British orientation of Emir Ahmed al-Jaber al-Sabah (1921-50), in 1927 he transferred the oil concession in Kuwait to the American company Eastern Gulf Oil. Great Britain, under pressure from the United States, was forced to compromise and form the Kuwait Oil Company, in which the British and Americans participated on an equal basis (in 1934 it received a monopoly on the exploration and production of oil in Kuwait).
In the context of the global economic crisis of 1929-33, Kuwait's economy, which was mainly export-oriented, experienced significant difficulties. The competition for Kuwaiti pearls in the world market was made by cheaper artificial Japanese pearls. Oil revenues did not cover the budget deficit. Its production until 1938 remained minimal.
In the mid-1930s, the Young Kuwaitis movement arose in the emirate, advocating the democratization of society, the implementation of social reforms and the pursuit of an independent domestic and foreign policy. In an effort to prevent the strengthening of the movement, in the summer of 1938 the emir approved a constitution that significantly curtailed his power and granted significant rights to the Legislative Council. However, in 1939, with the support of the British, he put into effect a new constitution, according to which he gave himself the right to dissolve the Legislative Council, as well as the right to veto all its decisions. The constitution declared Kuwait an Arab state under British protectorate.
With the beginning of the 2nd World War, due to the reduction in transit trade, the economic situation of Kuwait worsened. Famine began in the country. The calls of the Young Kuwaitis to overthrow the pro-British government received a wide response in the country. The emir's government and the British administration responded with brutal repressions, the Young Kuwaiti movement was completely crushed. However, the Kuwaiti authorities managed to stabilize the domestic political situation only after the end of the war. Since 1946 "Kuwait Oil Co." started oil production on an industrial scale. At the end of 1951, the government of Kuwait achieved a revision of the terms of the agreements with the company. It was decided to increase her concession payments to the budget of Kuwait (she began to transfer up to 50% of her income to it). This made it possible to increase allocations to the social sphere. In 1950, Emir Abdullah III al-Salem al-Sabah (1950-65), with the assistance of British advisers, developed an economic development plan that included the construction of roads, an airfield, power plants and seawater desalination plants. The intensive development of oil fields and the development of a number of industries associated with it caused a massive influx of workers and specialists from the Arab countries, as well as India, Pakistan and Iran, to Kuwait.
Anti-British sentiment in Kuwait intensified in connection with the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 and the Suez Crisis of 1956. In June 1961, an agreement was signed to cancel the Anglo-Kuwaiti Treaty of 1899.
On June 19, 1961, Kuwait's independence was proclaimed. On June 25, 1961, the head of the Iraqi Government, A. K. Kasem, demanded the annexation of Kuwait to Iraq on the grounds that during the Ottoman Empire, it, like most of the modern Iraqi state, was part of the Basor vilayet. The Kuwaiti authorities again turned to Great Britain for help, and British troops were brought into the country.
Kuwait 20/7/1961 became a member of the League of Arab States (LAS); in September 1961 the British Armed Forces in Kuwait were replaced by military contingents from Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria and Tunisia. The National Council of the Revolutionary Command, which came to power in Iraq in February 1963, renounced claims to Kuwait territory and settled relations with it.
The acute crisis in relations with Iraq contributed to the internal consolidation of Kuwait and the implementation of reforms. On November 16, 1962, a new Constitution was adopted. The emir, declared an inviolable person, received wide powers. The supreme legislative power was assigned to the emir and the elected National Assembly, the highest executive branch- for the emir and the government. The activities of political parties were banned, but the creation of socio-political associations and clubs was allowed. An important role was played by feminist as well as Islamist organizations (mainly the Society for Social Reform, created by supporters of the Muslim Brotherhood movement). On January 23, 1963, the first parliamentary elections were held in Kuwait. On January 29, 1963, the first National Assembly was convened. By the mid-1960s, an opposition group was formed in it, led by the leader of the Arab Nationalist Movement, Ahmed al-Khatib. Since the second half of the 1960s, the positions of supporters of the nationalization of oil fields have also strengthened in parliament. With the outbreak of the so-called Six-Day Arab-Israeli War of 1967 (see Arab-Israeli Wars), Emir Sabah III al-Salem al-Sabah (1965-77) announced the cessation of oil supplies to Great Britain and the United States, but did not break off relations with them. After the defeat of the Arab countries, Kuwait relied on rapprochement with Saudi Arabia and Libya. In 1968, the leaders of these countries announced the creation of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC). The energy crisis of 1973-1974 strengthened Kuwait's desire to independently manage its oil resources: in 1975, the government announced the transfer of all ownership of Kuwait Oil Co. into the hands of the state.
In August 1976, an acute political crisis erupted in the country. Emir Sabah III al-Salem al-Sabah dissolved the National Assembly by a special decree. This caused mass protests of the population, led to the intensification of the activities of extremist Islamist organizations. The Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 had a significant impact on public sentiment in Kuwait. The Kuwaiti authorities, concerned about the scale of anti-government protests, decided to restore the activities of the parliament. In February 1981, elections to the National Assembly were held. The victory was won by conservative circles that supported the course of the government. However, the Kuwaiti authorities failed to stabilize the situation in the country. In the early 1980s, Kuwait's economic situation deteriorated as a result of a sharp drop in oil prices; in 1982-83 there was a budget deficit ($100 million; subsequently eliminated thanks to foreign investment). The Iran-Iraq war of 1980-88, a series of terrorist attacks (1983, 1985) and an attempt on the emir in 1985, organized in Kuwait by one of the Iranian extremist organizations, increased internal political tension. Foreigners began to be expelled from Kuwait en masse, and the activities of the National Assembly were again suspended in 1986.
The main problem of Kuwait's foreign and defense policy during this period was to ensure national security. Kuwait tried to solve it by strengthening its own military potential. In the early 1990s, Kuwait's relations with Iraq again deteriorated (see the Kuwait crisis of 1990-91). On August 2, 1990, Iraqi troops occupied Kuwait. On February 28, 1991, he was liberated by the forces of the anti-Iraq coalition during Operation Desert Storm. The military conflict with Iraq forced the Kuwaiti authorities to abandon the previous concept of ensuring national security based on own forces. In September 1991, Kuwait and the United States signed an agreement on cooperation in the military sphere for a period of 10 years. In February 1991, a similar agreement was concluded with Great Britain, in August of the same year - with France, in December 1993 - with Russia.
In 1992, the National Assembly of Kuwait resumed its work. The Kuwaiti authorities during this period paid much attention to the fight against financial abuse and corruption. In January 1993, a law was passed obliging all state-owned companies and investment organizations to conduct their accounts through a single audit company accountable to a parliamentary commission. The National Assembly also gained control over defense contracts and the use of public funds. In 1998, in connection with a new drop in oil prices, the government raised the issue of the need for economic reforms, including the privatization of oil industry enterprises (the privatization plan was made public in 2006). In the late 1990s and early 2000s, measures were taken to attract additional foreign investment to the country's economy.
In 2003, Kuwait actively supported the United States and its allies in preparing and conducting a military operation to overthrow the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq. The Kuwaiti authorities provided their territory for the deployment of anti-Iraqi coalition forces. In December 2004, the emirate joined the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative, which provides for the strengthening of NATO's presence in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf.
In January 2006, a new political crisis erupted in Kuwait. After the death of Emir Jaber III al-Ahmed al-Jaber al-Sabah (1977-2006), the parliament took the initiative to elect a new ruler due to the illness of the crown prince and the impossibility for him to take over the government. The National Assembly elected Sabah al-Ahmed al-Jaber al-Sabah as the new Emir of Kuwait. The crisis escalated in May 2006, after the National Assembly demanded that the prime minister submit a report on the work of the government (this procedure is provided for by the Constitution of Kuwait, but until then it was not practiced). On May 21, 2006, the emir issued a decree dissolving the National Assembly and holding new elections (held in June 2006). In March 2008, Sabah al-Ahmed al-Jaber al-Sabah again dissolved parliament and called early elections (held in May 2008).
Diplomatic relations between Kuwait and the USSR were established on March 11, 1963. In February 2008, the Russian-Kuwaiti Business Council was formed within the framework of the Russian-Arab Business Council. At the level of the leadership of the two countries, the practice of exchanging messages and visits has been developed, contacts have been established through the parliamentary line. The parties are pursuing a policy of expanding cooperation in the trade, economic and investment spheres.
Lit.: Dickson H. R. R. Kuwait and her neighbors. L., 1956, Kelly J. B. Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795-1880. Oxf., 1968; Dlin N. A., Zvereva L. S. Kuwait. M., 1968; Bodyansky V. L. Modern Kuwait. M., 1971; Anthony J. D. Arab states of the Lower Gulf. Wash., 1975; Georgiev A.G., Ozoling V.V. Oil Monarchies of Arabia: Problems of Development. M., 1983; Melkumyan E. S. Kuwait in the 60-80s. Socio-economic processes and foreign policy. M., 1989; Mansfield R. Kuwait: vanguard of the Gulf. L., 1990; Crystal J. Oil and politics in the Gulf: rulers and merchants in Kuwait and Qatar. Camb.; N.Y., 1995; An scombe F. F. The Ottoman Gulf: the creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. N.Y., 1997; Al Ghunaim Y. Y. Kuwait faces avidity. Kuwait, 2000; Isaev V. A., Filonik A. O., Shagal V. E. Kuwait and Kuwaitis in modern world. M., 2003.
E. S. Melkumyan.
economy
The basis of the economy - oil industry. At the beginning of the 21st century, oil production and refining provide about 50% of the value of GDP, over 90% of foreign exchange earnings and 95% of state budget revenues. Funds from oil exports are used to modernize the economy, develop healthcare, education, etc. 2 state reserve funds have been created: the Fund for Future Generations (annual deductions are about 10% of oil revenues) and the General Reserve Fund; the total reserves of the funds are estimated at $209 billion. Kuwait is a major international donor; since 1961 it has been providing economic assistance to Arab countries through the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (the largest recipients are Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and others).
Priority directions economic policy are the diversification of the economy, the weakening of dependence on the oil sector and government subsidies (in the mid-2000s, the public sector retains a leading role in the economy), the attraction of foreign investment, the implementation of a program for the privatization of state property (except for the oil sector). Since 2005, the privatization of utilities, ports, filling stations and telecommunications companies. Privatization is complicated by competition for jobs among foreigners and indigenous people (especially young people), traditionally employed in public sector enterprises (93%) and government agencies.
The volume of GDP is 149.1 billion dollars (purchasing power parity), per capita 57.4 thousand dollars (2008). Real GDP growth 8.5% (2008). Index human development 0.916 (2007; 31st out of 182 countries). In the structure of GDP, industry accounts for 52.4%, services - 47.3%, agriculture - 0.3%. Foreign investment is 19.7% of GDP (2007).
Industry. Proven oil reserves in the country are over 9% of the world. Oil production 2.6 million barrels / day (2007); over 90% of oil is exported. The main fields under development are concentrated in the north (Er-Raudatain and Sabriya), the west (Minakish and Umm Gudayr), the southeast of the country (Great Burgan group of fields), within the former Neutral Zone (El-Bahra), as well as on the shelf of the Persian bay. Field development, oil transportation, processing (including the production of organic synthesis products, including ammonia and urea) and its trade is carried out by the state-owned Kuwait Petroleum Corporation through a network of subsidiaries: Kuwait Oil Company (oil and gas production), “ Kuwait Oil Tanker Co." (oil transportation), Kuwait National Petroleum Co. (refining and trading on the domestic market), "Petrochemical Industries Co." (PIC; ammonia and urea production), Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Co. (concessions in developing countries), Santa Fe International Corp. (foreign operations). Oil production in the former Neutral Zone is carried out by the Kuwait Gulf Oil Company (a joint venture with Saudi Arabia; the oil produced here is divided equally between both countries). Natural gas (production 12.5 bcm; 2006) occurs in Kuwait mainly as associated gas. Gas from the production sites is supplied through gas pipelines to the gas liquefaction plant in Ash-Shuaiba. Gas is fully used domestically. Kuwait's energy industry is based on its own hydrocarbon feedstock. Electricity production 44.75 billion kWh, consumption - 39.5 billion kWh (2006). The largest thermal power plants in Al-Kuwait, Al-Ahmadi, Al-Fuhaikhil. There are 3 large refineries (with a total capacity of over 900 thousand barrels of crude oil per day): in Al-Ahmadi (465 thousand barrels / day), Mina Abd Allah (247 thousand barrels / day) and Mina Shuaiba (190 thousand barrels / day) day). The largest petrochemical complex is located in Ash-Shuaiba (commissioned in 1997; production of ethylene, ethylene glycol, polypropylene, sulfuric acid, nitrogen fertilizers, etc.; EQUATE, a joint venture between PIC and the American DOW Chemical, etc.). Small metalworking and metallurgical enterprises (in Al-Ahmadi, Ash-Shuaib), enterprises for the production household appliances, repair of oil equipment, construction of ships. A prominent role in the economy is played by the production of building materials (2.2 million tons of cement in 2006; Kuwait Cement Company).
Due to the lack of fresh water sources in Kuwait, industrial desalination of sea water has been established at 5 desalination plants.
Agriculture does not play a significant role in the country's economy due to the extremely limited land suitable for agricultural production (during the Kuwait crisis of 1990-91, a significant part of agricultural land was destroyed by fires and oil spills). Over 80% of food is imported. At the beginning of the 21st century, about 1% of the country's territory is used, 3/4 of these areas are irrigated using the latest technologies, including hydroponics. They mainly grow vegetables and dates. Collection (thousand tons, 2005): tomatoes 15.2, cucumbers 5.7, dates 5, potatoes 3.2, green peppers and chili 2.4, eggplants 2.4, cauliflower 1.6, onions 1.5, cabbage 1.4, okra 1. Fishing and seafood production are developed (the main object of the fishery is shrimp). The annual total catch is about 4 thousand tons (satisfies domestic demand by about 25%). Since 1972, fishing has been controlled by Kuwait United Fisheries.
Services sector. An actively developing sector of the economy, the leading sectors are public administration, banking and financial activities, foreign tourism, and trade. The banking sector is represented by the Central Bank of Kuwait (founded in 1969), 7 commercial (including the National Bank of Kuwait, founded in 1952 - the first national bank in the Persian Gulf region, the largest in the country) and 1 Islamic bank.
There are 37 companies operating in the insurance business; the largest are Al Ahlia Insurance Co., Warba Insurance Company and Kuwait Insurance Co.. The largest stock exchange in the country is the Kuwait Stock Exchange (2nd in terms of turnover in the Persian Gulf countries after the Saudi Stock Exchange).
Kuwait attaches great importance to the development of tourism; in the mid-2000s, the tourism sector provides about 5% of GDP and 4.6% of employment. The income from foreign tourism is over 6 billion US dollars per year.
Transport. The total length of roads is 5749 km, of which 4887 km are paved (2004). Kuwait is connected by road with Iraq (Basra) and Saudi Arabia (Riyadh, Dammam). Kuwait's merchant marine fleet consists of 38 seagoing vessels (over 1,000 gross tons each; total displacement of 2,294.2 thousand gross tons or 3,730.8 thousand deadweight; 2008), including 22 oil tankers. Under the flags of other countries (including Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain) 34 Kuwaiti merchant ships sail. The main seaports are: Mina al-Ahmadi (the main export port of the country), Ash Shuaiba, Ash Shuwayh, Mina Abd Allah and Al Kuwait. There are 7 airports, 4 of which have paved runways (2007). International airport in Kuwait. The leading state-owned airline is Kuwait Airways; there are private airlines Jazeera Airways (since 2004) and Wataniya Airways (since 2005). The length of main pipelines is 866 km, including oil pipelines 540 km, gas pipelines 269 km, oil product pipelines 57 km (2007).
International trade. The volume of foreign trade turnover is 84.3 billion dollars (2007), including exports of 63.7 billion dollars, imports of 20.6 billion dollars. The main export items are oil and oil products, chemical products (mainly fertilizers) are also exported in small quantities. Main export trading partners: Japan (19.6% of value; 2007), South Korea (17.5%), China (14.8%), Singapore (9.8%), USA (8.3%), Netherlands (4.7%). Food, industrial and transport equipment, cars, building materials, clothing, etc. are imported from the USA (12.9% of the value; 2007), Japan (8.7%), Germany (7.5%), China (7%), Saudi Arabia (6.4%), Italy (5.9%), UK (4.7%), India (4%), South Korea (4%).
Lit.: Isaev V. A. Kuwait: the contours of economic change. M., 2003.
A. I. Voropaev.
Military establishment
The Armed Forces (AF) of Kuwait consist of the Ground Forces (SV), Air Force and Navy (total 15.5 thousand people; 2008), in addition, there are paramilitary forces - the National Guard and the Coast Guard. Military annual budget $3.92 billion (2007 est.).
The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the Emir. The general leadership is carried out by the Minister of Defense, to whom the General Staff and commanders of the Armed Forces are subordinate. Military construction in the country is carried out on the basis of long-term plans developed with the participation of American and British military specialists.
The SV (11 thousand people, including over 3 thousand foreign military specialists) are the basis of the Armed Forces and include 10 brigades (3 armored, 2 motorized infantry, 1 artillery, 1 reconnaissance motorized infantry, 1 engineering, 1 emir guard and 1 reserve), a separate battalion special purpose, communications units. The SV is armed with about 370 tanks (of which 75 are in storage), over 450 infantry fighting vehicles, over 320 armored personnel carriers (of which 40 are in storage), about 200 recoilless artillery guns, 113 self-propelled guns (of which 18 are in storage), 27 MLRS, 78 mortars, about 120 ATGM launchers. The Air Force (about 2.5 thousand people) has 50 combat, 12 combat training, 16 training and 6 military transport aircraft; 32 combat, 4 multi-purpose and 9 transport helicopters, as well as the Air Force includes air defense units with 40 launchers of air defense systems and MANPADS. In addition, the country's air defense is provided by 5 Patriot air defense systems, which are served by the American military. The naval structure of the Navy (about 2 thousand people) includes 10 missile and 12 patrol boats, as well as 3 auxiliary vessels. Coast guard units (500 people) have 20 large and several small patrol boats, 5 auxiliary vessels. Naval base - El-Kulaya. The National Guard (7.1 thousand people) performs the functions of internal troops, it consists of 6 battalions (3 infantry, 1 motorized infantry, 1 special purpose, 1 military police), armed with small arms and armored personnel carriers. Armament and military equipment of foreign production.
The recruitment of regular aircraft is carried out on a voluntary basis. Mobilization resources amount to 880,000 people, including 532,000 fit for military service.
V. D. NESTERKIN.
healthcare
In Kuwait, there are 180 doctors per 100,000 inhabitants (mostly from the US, UK, Egypt, India), 370 nurses and midwives, 30 dentists, 50 pharmacists (2006); 19 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants (2005). Total health spending is 2.2% of GDP (budget funding 77.2%, private sector 22.8%) (2006). The legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1962), as well as the Law on Tobacco Smoking (2004). The healthcare system includes hospitals, medical institutions and clinics. Medical care for citizens of Kuwait is provided free of charge, based on modern technologies. Hospital care (dentistry, chronic non-communicable diseases, maternal and child health care) ranks among the highest quality among the countries of the Middle East. The most famous are the As-Salam clinic, the Al-Shaab medical center, and the Ar-Rashid hospital. Hospitals have departments for emergency, specialized and outpatient care.
V. S. Nechaev.
Sport
The Kuwait Olympic Committee was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1966. Athletes from Kuwait participated in 11 Olympic Games (beginning with Mexico City, 1968) and won one bronze medal: in 2000 (Sydney) F. al-Dikhani took 3rd place in double trap shooting. At the Olympic Games in Beijing (2008), Kuwait athletes competed in athletics, judo, shooting, swimming, table tennis. Among other most popular sports are football, handball, boxing, diving, tennis. There are 25 tennis clubs in the country (95 outdoor courts, 5 indoors); Kuwait men's team takes part in the Davis Cup.
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions
The education system includes: preschool education for children from 4 to 6 years old, compulsory 8-year education (4-year elementary School, 4-year incomplete secondary) and 4-year complete secondary education. Specialized colleges (technical, medical, commercial, etc.) operate on the basis of an incomplete secondary school. Education of boys and girls at school is separate; at all levels (from kindergarten to university) - free of charge. preschool institutions covered (2008) 75% of pupils, primary education - 83%, secondary - 77% of students. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 93.3% (2006). The higher education system includes: Kuwait University (1966), non-state universities - Kuwait-Maastricht Business School (2003), American University (2004), Kuwait branch of the Arab Open University - all in Kuwait; Gulf States University of Science and Technology (2002; campuses in Hawalli and Mishref), Box Hill Women's College (a division of the Australian Box Hill Institute; founded in 2007 in Abu Khalifa), American University of the Middle East (2008) in Egail and al. National Library of Kuwait (1936). Museums: National (1957), Scientific and Pedagogical (1972), Islamic Art (1983), Tarek Rajab (opened in 1980; manuscripts, ceramics, glass, musical instruments etc.); a museum and cultural fund of the Bedouin Sadu-house, etc. Among the scientific institutions are the Arab Institute of Planning (1966), the Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research (1967), the National Council for Culture, Arts and Languages (1973), the Arab Educational Research Center Gulf States (1978), Kuwait Studies Center (1992), Middle East Information Research Institute (1998), Al-Wasatiya Research, Education and Outreach Center (2006) - all in Kuwait City; Science Center (2000; contains the largest aquarium in the Middle East) in the Salmiya area.
Mass media
There are 7 daily newspapers published in Kuwait (2008), among which 5 are Arabic(all in Kuwait): Al-Alba (Izvestia; since 1976), Al-Watan (Motherland; since 1974), Al-Kabas (Knowledge; since 1972) , "Ar-Ray al-Amm" [" Public opinion»; since 1961; has a weekly supplement "An-Nahda" ("Rise")], "As-Siyasa" ("Politics"; since 1965). Daily newspapers are published in English and Indian languages (all in Kuwait): The Arab Times (in 1963-77 it was published under the name Daily News), The Kuwait Times (since 1961). Among the leading weekly newspapers in Arabic (all in Kuwait City): Ar-Raid (Pioneer; since 1969), Al-Hadaf (Goal; since 1961), Al-Yaqza ( "Awakening"; since 1966). Sports issues are covered by the Al-Jamahir newspaper (The Masses; El-Kuwait; since 1984, daily). In Kuwait, 105 monthly and about 110 weekly magazines are published, the largest of which (all in El Kuwait): Al-Arabi (Arab; since 1958, monthly), Al-Kuwaiti (Kuwaiti; since 1961, weekly). Broadcasting since 1951; carried out by the government broadcasting service "Kuwait Broadcasting SCE" (El Kuwait). There are 11 VHF and 6 HF radio stations. TV broadcasting since 1957; since 1961 it has been carried out by the government service Kuwait Television (El Kuwait). There are 13 TV stations. State news agency - Kuwait News Agency (since 1976; Kuwait).
Literature
The literature of the Kuwaiti people is part of the pan-Arab culture, with which it is united by a common tradition. The founder of Kuwaiti literature and the first educator is Abdel Jalil at-Tabatabana, whose collection of poems written in line with classical Arabic literature was published in 1882 (India). In 1911, the al-Mubarakiya school was founded, which marked the beginning of transformations in the field of the country's culture; some of its graduates became prominent figures in literature and education, including Abd al-Aziz al-Rashid, the author of the book "History of Kuwait" (1926), the publisher of the literary magazine "Al-Kuwait", in which the first Kuwaiti story - "Munira » Khalid ibn-Muhammad al-Faraji (1929), talking about the socio-economic transformations in Kuwait. The prose of the 1940s is represented by the work of Khalid Khalaf (the short stories "The Sophistication of Rock", "Between Water and Sky", both 1947), Fahd al-Duwayri (the story "In Reality", 1948), etc. Among the writers of the older generation: the poets Muhammad al-Faiz (collections "Memories of a Sailor", 1961, "Turquoise Ring", 1984, etc.), Ahmad al-Udwani (collections "Wings of the Storm", 1980, "Drops", 1996) - author of the anthem of Kuwait, poet and playwright Faiq Abdel Jalil (collection of poems "Abu Zeid - Hero of the Seekers", 1974; play "The Carpet of Poverty", 1980).
In the late 1960s, a new generation of prose writers in Kuwait emerged. A notable phenomenon was the work of Suleiman ash-Shat (collections of stories "Quiet Voice", 1970, "People of a High Level", 1982, "And I'm Different", 1995), Suleiman al-Khulayfi (collection of stories "The Destroyer", 1974), Leyla al-Usmani (collections of stories "Love is many-sided", 1983, "55 short stories", 1992; novels "Woman and Cat", 1982, "Wasmiya comes out of the sea", 1985), Ismail Fahd Ismail (novels "Gloomy Barriers", 1996, Far From Here, 1998, Far Sky, 2000), science fiction writer Abdelwahhab al-Said (the novels Tales of Another World, On the Dark Side, both 2008), etc. Poetry is developing [Suad Muhammad as -Sabah (collections "To you, my son", 1982, "Dialogue of a rose and a rifle", 1989; "Roses know how to be angry", 2005), etc.]. The writers cover a wide range of topics: from the traditional chanting of nature and the activities of the Bedouins to the analysis of the social problems of modern Arab society, changes in the traditional way of life.
Publisher: Winds of the Gulf. Storybook. M., 1985.
Lit .: Isaev V. A., Filonik A. O., Shagal V. E. Kuwait and Kuwaitis in the modern world. M., 2003.
E. V. Kukhareva.
Architecture and fine arts
In the period from the end of the 3rd millennium BC to the 17th century AD, the centers of culture in the territory of Kuwait were concentrated on Failaka Island. The oldest buildings include the ruins of a fortress from the early Hellenistic period with the remains of temples from the middle of the 1st millennium BC, the architecture of which combines ancient Greek and Achaemenid elements. In El-Kusur, the ruins of an early Christian church (late 5th - early 6th century AD) with a narthex, galleries and a cruciform chapel were excavated; inside it, 2 stucco panels with ornamental motifs and images of a cross were found. In El-Kurania, the ruins of a fortress from the 16th and 17th centuries were discovered. During excavations on Failaka Island, clay figurines of horsemen of the so-called Achaemenid type, women and camels (mid-1st millennium BC), works of Hellenistic sculpture - a limestone dolphin, terracotta figurines (mainly images of deities and people; all - in National Museum of Kuwait, Kuwait City). Also among the finds are red ceramics of the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC, blue glass vessels of the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, cylindrical (mostly brought from Mesopotamia) and local stamp seals of the late 3rd millennium BC , glazed pottery from the 1st century AD.
The earliest surviving buildings of the late 18th and 19th centuries are traditional city houses, mostly one-story, plastered adobe (rarely made of raw brick), usually with several courtyards surrounded by arcades. A typical Kuwaiti element of planning is the presence of divania, public spaces for men to relax and socialize, usually overlooking the street facade of the house. In the decor of residential buildings (the design of door and window openings, walls, roof parapets), Turkish, Iranian, Indian influences are noticeable. Notable examples of residential architecture in Kuwait include the An-Nisf (c. 1827-37), Al-Badr (c. 1837-47), and Al-Ghanim (1916) houses in Kuwait City; quarters of traditional residential development have been preserved on Failaka Island. Among the earliest surviving mosques in Kuwait are Al-Khamis (1772-73) and Abd al-Razzaq (1797; both in Kuwait). An example of fortifications is the Red Fortress in El-Jahra (1895).
The economic boom of the 1950s gave rise to active new construction; foreign architects begin to work in Kuwait. For El Kuwait, a series of master plans are being developed (1952, bureau Monprio, Spensly and Macfarlen; 1968, bureau S. Buchanan and Partners, etc.) in the spirit of modernism, with a clear division of functional zones; during their implementation, quarters of historical buildings are demolished. Large-scale public buildings are being created, to varying degrees combining the principles of modernism with elements of traditional islamic architecture: in the new building of the al-Saif government palace in Kuwait, the forms of Muslim architecture prevail (1960-64), the building of the municipality of Al-Kuwait (1962, architect Salam Abdel Baki) was decided in the spirit of modern Western architecture. Since the 1970s, these trends have been combined in the mainstream of postmodernism; for example, in the complex of government buildings and the new wing of the al-Saif Palace (1973-83, architect R. Pietila), the building of the National Assembly (1973-85, J. Utzon), the large-scale State Mosque (1976-84, architect M. Makiya) , the Kuwait Tower complex (1977, VBB bureau), the Ash-Sharq embankment ensemble (1998, N. Ardalan; all in Kuwait). Features of neomodernism are demonstrated by the high-rise building of the "Oil Sector" of Kuwait (1996-2005, architect A. Erikson).
Professional fine arts appeared in Kuwait in the middle of the 20th century, when a system of art education was being formed there. One of the first Kuwaiti artists was M. al-Dossari (he studied in Egypt), the author of works on local subjects in the spirit of realism. Most of the Kuwaiti painters of the 20th century worked in this vein, creating still lifes and landscapes; the influence of surrealism was also quite strong (the work of S. Muhammad, the leading sculptor of the late 20th and early 21st centuries); the semi-abstract works of the painter S. Al-Ayyubi demonstrate the influence of expressionism. Folk crafts are represented by woodcarving, weaving baskets from palm leaves, weaving, jewelry, and the production of decorative leather goods.
Lit.: Lewcock R. Traditional architecture in Kuwait and the Northern Gulf. L., 1978; Gardiner S. Kuwait: the making of a city. Harlow, 1983; Contemporary art in Kuwait. Kuwait, 1983 (in Arabic); Muestras seleccionadas del arte abstracto y moderno de Kuwait. Kuwait, ; Mutawa S. A. History of architecture in old Kuwait City. Kuwait, 1994; Kuwait: arts and architecture / Ed. A. Fullerton, G. Fehirvari. Kuwait, 1995; Colors of enchantment: theater, dance, music and the visual arts of the Middle East. Cairo, 2001; Anderson R., Al-Bader J. Recent Kuwait architecture: regionalism vs. globalization // Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. 2006 Vol. 23. No. 2.
N. I. Frolova.
Music
The musical and dance culture is close to the culture of other countries of the Persian Gulf (Bahrain, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, partly Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran). The diversity of ethnic traditions (Arabic, South Iranian, South Iraqi, African, etc.) is characteristic. Ancient song and dance genres of local Bedouin origin (hada caravan songs and camel shepherd songs) became popular among the settled population. A special layer of oral creativity is solo and group "sea" songs (including songs of pearl divers). Some types of music developed under African influence (for example, the music of the healing rite zar). In modern urban culture, the influence of classical Arabic music is significant; from maqams, rast, bayati, sika are more often performed; traditional atifiya love songs, patriotic and modernized folk songs are widespread; saut genre (of Yemeni origin); in the African quarters - songs and dances of the leiva. On the basis of the Institute of Musical Research, in 1976, the graduate School musical arts. Among contemporary musicians are the singer and composer Ahmad Bakir (author of patriotic songs), Osman as-Sayyid (author of religious and love songs, as well as songs in the old style of muashah).
