The abolition of serfdom, the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, the rise of the social movement, the establishment of capitalism - all this contributed to the growth of enlightenment and the further development of culture. The leading role in art in the post-reform period belonged to the progressive raznochintsy intelligentsia.
in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Primary education developed at the fastest pace. Along with parochial and one-class schools of the Ministry of Public Education, zemstvo schools, which were maintained at the expense of local zemstvos, are becoming widespread. By the end of the century, primary education in rural areas included several million students. Many cities had Sunday schools for adults. But the number of literate people in Russia in 1897 was only 21% of the total population of the country.
By the end of 1914, there were about 124 thousand primary educational institutions in Russia, in which a little more than 30% of children aged 8 to 11 studied (46.6% in cities).
After heated debates about the nature of secondary education, the classical gymnasium became its basis, in which up to 40% of the study time was devoted to the study of Latin and Greek. In 1862, the first women's gymnasiums were opened. A special ministerial circular ("On the cook's children") limited the admission of children of poor parents to the gymnasium.
Advances in higher education have included both an increase in the number of higher education institutions and an increase in the number of students. In the post-reform period, along with the opening of new universities (in Odessa, Tomsk, Saratov), other higher educational institutions were opened (Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg, various institutes in St. Petersburg and Moscow).
In the 1913/14 academic year, there were 63 state higher education institutions in Russia. educational institutions where more than 71 thousand students studied.
Literature
In the post-reform period, literature continues to occupy a leading place in Russian culture. Realism is still the predominant direction in it. A feature of realism was the constant desire to reflect reality as broadly as possible, to reveal and denounce public untruth. At the same time, the literature of realism asserted positive social ideals. Nationality, patriotism, protection of the rights and interests of the masses and the individual, the struggle for social justice - these are specific traits inherent in advanced Russian literature.
The names of I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, F. Dostoevsky, I. Goncharov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov have forever entered the treasury of world literature. Advanced literature, responding to the most important socio-political events of that time, had a significant impact on the development of theater, music and fine arts.
Theatre
Russian theatrical culture of the second half of the XIX century. nationality and humanism, ideological and emotional richness, deep reproduction of human characters and historical truth were inherent. Continuing the traditions of Fonvizin, Griboedov, Pushkin, A. Ostrovsky completed the creation of Russian national drama with his work (the plays “Dowry”, “Our people - we will settle”, “Thunderstorm”, “Profitable place”, etc.).
The Maly Theater was rightfully the center of the theatrical life in Russia. The leading place in his repertoire was occupied by Ostrovsky's plays. The great actress M. Yermolova created many memorable female images on the stage of the theater. Among them is the image of Catherine from Ostrovsky's Thunderstorm.
Music
From the middle of the XIX century. the musical life of Russia more and more often leaves the walls of salons for the elite. In 1859, the Russian Musical Society was created in St. Petersburg. In the early 60s. M. Balakirev founded a free music school in St. Petersburg. The first Russian conservatories are opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At the same time, a circle of composers formed around the composer Balakirev in St. Petersburg, known as the “Mighty Handful” (M. Mussorgsky, N. Rimsky Korsakov, A. Borodin, C. Cui). The composers of The Mighty Handful included motifs from folk songs in their symphonic and operatic works. An important place in their work was occupied by operas on historical themes: "Boris Godunov" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Tsar's Bride" by Rimsky-Korsakov. The pinnacle of Russian musical art of the second half of the 19th century. was the work of P. Tchaikovsky. His operas ("Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker"), romances forever entered the history of not only Russian, but also world art.
Painting
In the second half of the XIX century. it is the time of the rise and flourishing in Russia of the national realistic and democratic school of painting. In 1863, a group of the most talented students of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, headed by I. Kramskoy, demanded freedom in choosing a subject for graduation work. Having been refused, they left the Academy and created an artel of free artists. In 1870, on the initiative of I. Kramskoy, G. Myasoedov, N. Ge, V. Perov, the Association of Art Traveling Exhibitions was organized in St. Petersburg. The ideological leader of the Wanderers was Kramskoy, who created a whole gallery of portraits of Russian writers, artists, and public figures. The highest achievements of Russian realism in painting are associated with the work of I. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Wait”, “The Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan”) and V. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyar Morozova”, “Conquest Siberia Yermak).
The development of art in the second half of the XIX century. in Russia - one of the most remarkable pages in the history of Russian and world culture.
The beginning of the 20th century - the "silver age" of Russian culture
The Russian culture of the beginning of the new century was a worthy successor to the Russian culture of the 19th century, although its development took place in different historical conditions.
The beginning of the 20th century is the time of the creative rise of Russian science, literature, art, a kind of cultural revival. It seemed to fall apart into several currents: on the one hand, the further development of the best democratic traditions, on the other, doubts, revision of the old, contradictory and rebellious searches for the new, attempts at maximum self-expression. In many ways, it was a culture for the "chosen ones", far from not only the people, but also from the broad circles of the intelligentsia. But it was she who laid the foundation for a new direction in the art of Russia.
New directions in literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Literature continued to play an exceptionally important role in the cultural life of the country. Along with the realistic trend (L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, and others), new trends appear in Russian literature, especially in poetry. This was associated with the names of L. Andreev, A. Blok, V. Bryusov, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, V. Mayakovsky and others. A characteristic feature of the new trends in poetry - decadence, symbolism - was not only a kind of protest and rejection of reality but also the search for new ways of self-expression.
Music
The development of musical art, as in previous years, was closely connected with the names of composers - members of the "Mighty Handful". However, new names also appear in Russian music. At this time, A. Glazunov, S. Rachmaninov, A. Scriabin, I. Stravinsky, S. Prokofiev began their composing activities. In their work, national traditions are associated with active searches in the field of musical form. A lot of wonderful singers were given by the Russian vocal school. Among them, the stars of the first magnitude were F. Chaliapin, L. Sobinov, A. Nezhdanova.
Painting
For Russian painting, however, as for all the fine arts of the early 20th century, two main trends are characteristic: traditional realistic and modernist. The realistic trend in painting was represented by I. Repin, who wrote in 1909-1916. a number of portraits (P. Stolypin, L. Tolstoy, V. Korolenko, V. Bekhterev and others), his student V. Serov, whose portraits are real psychological characteristics of writers, artists, doctors. The activities of the “poet of Russian nature” I. Levitan also belong to this period.
Modernism was associated with the departure of a number of artists from established norms in painting and the search for new artistic solutions. Modernism was not a purely Russian phenomenon in the visual arts. It affected all countries, especially France and Italy. At the beginning of the century, impressionist painting was developing in Russia. Its adherents were K. Korovin, V. Borisov-Musatov and others. M. Vrubel can be considered the founder of modernism in Russia. The theme of the Demon, which for decades was the main one in his work, embodied the dissatisfaction, longing and anger of a restless person.
V. Kandinsky and K. Malevich became the true leaders of abstractionism not only in Russia, but also in world art.
It should be noted that the cultural life in Russia was supported by a galaxy of Russian patrons (S. Diaghilev, S. Mamontov, S. Morozov and others), who played a significant role in the development of Russian culture.
World recognition of Russian culture. Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. reached amazing heights. It contributed not only to the growth of self-awareness of the peoples of Russia, but also influenced the entire European culture.
Russian art has received wide international recognition. Organized by S. Diaghilev "Russian Seasons in Paris" (1906-1912) were notable events in European cultural life.
Thus, in 1906, the exhibition "Two Centuries of Russian Painting and Sculpture" was presented to Parisians, which Diaghilev supplemented with a concert of Russian music. The success was amazing. V next year Parisians could get acquainted with Russian music from Glinka to Scriabin. In 1908, F. Chaliapin performed in Paris with exceptional success as Tsar Boris in Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov. A truly unique phenomenon was the rise of Russian ballet at the beginning of the century. From 1909 to 1912, the “Russian Ballet Seasons” were held annually in Paris, which became a world-class event. The names of Russian dancers flashed on the newspaper pages - Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Vatslav Nijinsky. Unprecedented success fell to the share of I. Stravinsky's ballets "The Firebird", "Petrushka", "The Rite of Spring".
THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW:
I. Repin in the painting “The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan” painted one of the Cossacks from the famous Russian writer V. Gilyarovsky, the author of the book “Moscow and Muscovites”. The sculptor N. Andreev sculpted Taras Bulba from him for a bas-relief on the monument to N. Gogol in Moscow.
Despite the relatively low level of literacy in Russia (less than 30% by 1913), newspapers, magazines, and books are becoming more and more widespread. On the eve of the First World War, 2915 magazines and newspapers were published in the country, and in terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan).
References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.
Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the XIX century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, made scientific reports, published articles in scientific journals.
Capitalism, with its increased technical potential and the scope of industrial production, which required an increase in the raw material base, led to profound shifts in the field of domestic science and technology. The general ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades, the democratic upsurge that stirred up the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about the enormous social role of science also contributed to the "extraordinary success of the intellectual movement" (K.A. Timiryazev).
The Academy of Sciences, universities, scientific societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In the post-reform period, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, and the works of some university professors received worldwide recognition. In the mid-1960s, Sovremennik noted that "in many branches of science, representatives of our university scholarship are not only not inferior, but even surpass the representatives of academic scholarship in their merits."
New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, and the Russian Technical Society (1866). A serious contribution to the development of the natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that, as a rule, existed at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the majority of which arose in the second half of the 19th century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, later transformed into a Physical and Chemical Society; Russian Technical Society; Russian Historical Society, etc.).
St. Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.
In the second half of the XIX century. domestic science, based on materialistic and scientific traditions, has achieved unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science, connected with the development of world science, have greatly raised its international prestige. “Take any book from a foreign scientific journal,” wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly meet Russian name. Russian science has declared its equality, and sometimes even superiority.
A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created the theory of equilibrium stability and motion of mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.
It is also worth mentioning the first female professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), who discovered the classical case of the solvability of the problem of rotation of a rigid body around a fixed point.
The ingenious scientist-chemist who created the periodic system chemical elements, was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved the inner strength between several species chemical substances. The periodic system was the foundation in the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far ahead. The work of D.I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was only published seven times during his lifetime.
Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlerov (1828-1886) - the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian Organic Chemists.
The founder of the Russian physical school A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of major discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which has received worldwide recognition.
From the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called "Yablochkov candle" - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for incandescence.
The discoveries of A.S. Popov (1859-1905), on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a “lightning detector” - a radio receiver that soon found practical application.
Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.
The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. The first studies in the field of aero- and rocket dynamics by K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), a gymnasium teacher in Kaluga, the founder of modern astronautics.
The works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale, he was the first to indicate the development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.
A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s. he worked on the creation of the aircraft.
The biological sciences have made great strides. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.
In 1863, I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) "Reflexes of the brain", which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which was of great importance for the development of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. The largest researcher, propagandist and popularizer of scientific knowledge, Sechenov created the physiological school, from which I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 1970s, he began his career as a physiologist.
I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - scientist, physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of digestion regulation; the founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.
Russian natural scientists were staunch propagandists and continuers of Charles Darwin's teachings. A Russian translation of his main work, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, appeared in Russia six years after its publication in England, in 1865.
Among the first Russian Darwinists was the founder of the evolutionary morphology of plants A.N. Beketov (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), who convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations of the doctrine of immunity, discovering in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the body's protective properties. Mechnikov's works were world famous. He was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.
In the development of Darwinism and natural-science materialism in Russia, the merits of K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian scientific school of plant physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and did much to promote Darwinism. Timiryazev considered the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin as the greatest achievement of science in the 19th century, which affirmed the materialistic worldview in biology.
V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem", recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types.
The expeditions organized by the Russian Geographical Society for the study of Central and Central Asia and Siberia by P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Ch.Ch. Valikhanov (1835-1865). With the name of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are connected with discoveries of world significance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he made while traveling in Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania.
In the second half of the XIX century. In Russia, humanities scholars fruitfully worked in the field of history, linguistics, literary criticism, and economics, creating important scientific research.
In the field of philology and linguistics, I.I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) - the founder of the St. Petersburg school of Slavists. He wrote valuable works on the history of the Russian Old Slavonic language, the history of Old Russian literature. A prominent linguist, the founder of the Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914). In the post-reform period, a foundation was laid for the study of A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific edition of the works of the great poet was prepared by P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies on his life and work.
Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklore, the collection and study of oral folk art was expanding. The published works were extremely valuable for the rich factual material contained in them. Vast work on collecting and studying folk art was done by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872), who published in the 60s the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day. In Soviet times, the dictionary of V.I. Dahl has been reprinted several times. (Appendix 3.)
Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of national history. In the 50-70s. the talented Russian historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.
Of great importance for Russian historiography was the emergence of a Marxist trend associated with the name of G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. By 1883, his first Marxist work, Socialism and the Political Struggle, dates back.
IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) taught the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with an economic and geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) paid great attention to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine against the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of "Russian history and biographies of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, bringing it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westernizers, who, despite a fundamental divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.
One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of the historical views of the Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.T. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict.
Westerners believed in unity human civilization and claimed that Western Europe goes at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and points the way to the rest of humanity.
The Slavophiles argued that there is no single universal civilization, and, consequently, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the “folk spirit”, penetrating all aspects of collective life.
Despite all their ideological differences, Slavophiles and Westerners unexpectedly converged on practical issues of Russian life: both trends had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press, speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.
A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the post-reform period was the extensive social and educational activities of scientists, the popularization of scientific knowledge through public lectures, and the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals increased (from about 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and this growth primarily affected the provinces (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals began to be published) .
The development of science, achievements in the field of natural sciences had a huge impact on social and cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, left an imprint on the state of the school, influenced to some extent on the way of thinking, the level of public consciousness.
The social upsurge during the period of the abolition of serfdom created favorable conditions for the development of Russian science. In the eyes of the younger generation, the importance and attractiveness of scientific activity grew. Graduates of Russian universities began to go more often for internships in foreign research centers, and contacts between Russian scientists and foreign colleagues became more active.
Great strides have been made in mathematics and physics. Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev (1821-1894) made major discoveries in mathematical analysis, number theory, and probability theory. In 1860 he was elected a foreign member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Chebyshev laid the foundation for the Petersburg mathematical school. Many talented scientists have come out of it, including Alexander Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857 - 1918). His discoveries spurred the development of a number of important areas of mathematics.
A striking event in the history of science was Sofia Vasilievna Kovalevskaya (1850-1891). Even in her early youth, she discovered extraordinary mathematical abilities. But Russian universities were closed to women, and she went abroad. There she received her Ph.D. and became a professor at Stockholm University, where she taught a number of excellent courses in mathematics. The works of Kovalevskaya received worldwide recognition.
played an important role in the development of physics Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov (1839-1896). He owns a number of studies in the field of photoelectric phenomena, subsequently used in the creation of modern electronic technology.
Development of physical Sciences determined the advances in electrical engineering. P. N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp (“Yablochkov’s candle”) and was the first to carry out the transformation alternating current. A. N. Lodygin invented a more advanced incandescent lamp.
The discovery of world significance was the invention of the radiotelegraph. Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859-1905), the son of a priest, showed an interest in electrical engineering as a student. In the future, the study of electrical phenomena, electromagnetism became the main direction of his scientific research. In 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, he made a presentation on the use of electromagnetic waves for signal transmission. The device he demonstrated, the lightning detector, was essentially the world's first receiving radio station. In subsequent years, he created more advanced devices, but his attempts to establish radio communications in the navy ran into skepticism and misunderstanding of the command.
Marine officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky (1825-1890) dedicated his life to creating aircraft heavier than air. He studied the flight of birds, made models, and in 1881 began building an airplane with two steam engines 20 and 10 hp Mozhaisky's aircraft was notable for its thoughtful and technically competent design for its time. There are no official documents about his test. Apparently, the flight attempt ended unsuccessfully due to insufficient engine power. The creation of an aircraft on steam engines was hardly feasible at all. Later experiments of this kind abroad were also not very successful: the French inventor K. Ader in 1891 managed to fly only 100 m. right inscribed in the history of aviation.
60-70s of the XIX century. called " golden age» Russian chemistry. Student of N. N. Zinin Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828-1886) developed a theory of chemical structure, the main provisions of which have not lost their significance to this day. In the second half of the XIX century. the great chemist made his discoveries Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907). He was born in Tobolsk in the family of the director of the gymnasium. His talent as a scientist unfolded at St. Petersburg University. The greatest merit of Mendeleev was the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements. On its basis, Mendeleev predicted the existence of many then unknown elements. Mendeleev's book Fundamentals of Chemistry has been translated into almost all European languages.
D. I. Mendeleev thought a lot about the fate of Russia. He associated its entry onto the path of economic and cultural upsurge with the wide and rational use of natural resources, with the development of the creative forces of the people, the spread of education and Sciences. He expressed his thoughts about the present and future of the country in the books " To the knowledge of Russia», « cherished thoughts», « Notes on public education in Russia».
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
Using the achievements of chemistry and biology, Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev (1846-1903) laid the foundation for modern soil science. He revealed the complex and lengthy process of the origin of soils. World fame Dokuchaev brought the monograph " Russian black soil". In the book " Our steppes before and now» (1892) scientist laid out a plan to deal with droughts. Dokuchaev's ideas influenced the development of forestry, melioration, hydrogeology and other sciences.
An outstanding Russian scientist, naturalist, founder of Russian physiology was Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905). At first, his fate developed in the same way as most of his peers from noble families. He became an officer, served in a sapper regiment. But, feeling attracted to scientific work, he retired and entered as a volunteer at Faculty of Medicine Moscow University. After graduating from the course of sciences, he went abroad at his own expense to improve in medicine. He was lucky to become a student of the famous German scientist G. Helmholtz, a physicist, mathematician, physiologist and psychologist. Abroad, Sechenov prepared a dissertation on the physiology of alcohol intoxication. Returning to his homeland, he headed the Department of Physiology at the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy and organized a physiological laboratory - one of the first in Russia. Of outstanding importance was his course of lectures on bioelectricity. In the future, he dealt with the problems of the human psyche. Sechenov's works were widely known. Reflexes of the brain" and " Psychological studies».
Activities of another world famous Russian biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916), concentrated in the field of microbiology, bacteriology, medicine. In 1887, Mechnikov, at the invitation of the French scientist Louis Pasteur, moved to Paris and headed one of the laboratories of the Pasteur Institute. Until the end of his days, he did not break ties with Russia, corresponded with Sechenov, Mendeleev, and other Russian scientists, repeatedly visited his homeland, and helped Russian trainees at his famous institute. The French government, which highly appreciated Mechnikov's scientific achievements, awarded him the Order of the Legion of Honor.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov
Professional historians have long been dissatisfied with the multi-volume work of N. M. Karamzin “ History of Russian Goverment". Many new sources on the history of Russia were revealed, and ideas about the historical process became more complicated. In 1851 the first volume " History of Russia since ancient times”, written by a young professor at Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820-1879). Since then, for many years, a new volume of his " Stories". The last, 29th volume was published in 1880. Events were brought up to 1775.
Comparing historical development Russia and other European countries, Solovyov found much in common in their destinies. He also noted the originality of the historical path of Russia. In his opinion, it consisted in its intermediate position between Europe and Asia, in the forced centuries-old struggle with the steppe nomads. Asia attacked first, Solovyov believed, and from about the 16th century. went on the offensive Russia is the advanced outpost of Europe in the East.
« Russian history» S. M. Solovyov was written at a high professional level, is still used by specialists, is reprinted. It is familiar to everyone who is interested in national history. However, the style of presentation in it is somewhat dry, in this respect it is inferior to " Stories» Karamzin.
Solovyov's student was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911). He replaced his teacher at the Department of Russian History at Moscow University. In keeping with the spirit of the times, Klyuchevsky showed great interest in socio-economic issues. He tried to trace the process of the formation of serf relations in Russia, to reveal their essence from an economic and legal point of view. Klyuchevsky had an uncommon gift for a lively, figurative presentation. His "Course of Russian History", compiled on the basis of university lectures, still has a wide readership.
Klyuchevsky led a quiet, measured life as an armchair scientist, outwardly not rich in events. " In the life of a scientist and writer, he said, the main biographical facts are books, the most important events are thoughts.».
The greatest Russian scholars who worked in the field of world history gained wide popularity not only in Russia, but also abroad. Maxim Maksimovich Kovalevsky (1851-1916) He became famous for his works on the history of the European peasant community. Of particular importance for the Russian reader was his work " Origins of Modern Democracy”, where the turning points of European history at the end of the 18th century were considered.
In the second half of the XIX century. Russian scientists have achieved significant success in various branches of knowledge. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the world's scientific centers.
The era of liberal reforms and rapid transformations of all aspects of the life of Russian society also affected the sphere of art. Here the desire for novelty was expressed in the struggle against the dead classicist traditions for a new content of art, for its active intrusion into life. The moral side of art, its civic meaning, comes to the fore. “I absolutely cannot write without a purpose and hope for benefit,” said L.N. Tolstoy just entering literature. These words are very characteristic of the era of transformation. Progressive writers were grouped around the journals Sovremennik and Domestic Notes, composers were united by M.A. Balakirev, who went down in history under the name of "The Mighty Handful". The common task of the struggle for realism, nationality and national identity gave rise to mutual influence and mutual enrichment of literature, painting and music.
Painting
Advanced artists waged an uncompromising struggle with the official court art, the routine system of the Academy of Arts, which, giving its students high professional skills, categorically opposed all new trends, forever “stuck” in classicism.
The inability to realize oneself within the framework of the Academy led to an event known in the history of culture as the "rebellion of the fourteen". In 1863, all the strongest students (including I.N. Kramskoy, K.E. Makovsky and others) refused to participate in the competition for the Big Gold Medal after the Academy Council rejected their desire for a free choice of topic and invited everyone to write a picture either on the plot of the Old Norse sagas - “The Feast in Valhalla”, or on the theme “The Liberation of the Peasants”, which was interpreted exclusively loyally. This was the first organized protest against academic routine, for which the artists were considered unreliable and were subjected to unspoken police surveillance.
Upon leaving the Academy, the “Protestants” organized the Artel of Artists, began to live and work together, taking as a model the commune described in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?". This form of organization was extremely popular among student youth in those years. The organizer of the artel was I.N. Kramskoy. The artel did not last long (until 1870), after which it fell apart. Soon all the oppositional forces in the visual arts were united by the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions.
With the release of "fourteen" the authority of the Academy was greatly undermined. The Moscow School of Painting and Sculpture began to play a significant role in the training of artistic personnel (since 1865, after the creation of the architectural department, it was called the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture). In its composition and position, it was much more democratic than the Academy of Arts, which was under the jurisdiction of the royal court. Many people from the lower classes studied here. School graduated from A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin, V.G. Perov and other artists who played a huge role in the development of Russian realism.
In general, the 1860s became the beginning of a new significant stage in the development of Russian art. During these years, the heyday of Russian realism begins. The main task of the artist is to recreate, with all possible credibility, a real event, a symbol of Russian reality.
One of the most prominent painters of that time was Vasily Grigorievich Perov. Like many other artists of that time, he deliberately focused on the shadowy aspects of society, criticizing the remnants of the serf past. The main content of Perov's work was the image of the life of the common people, the peasantry par excellence. The painting “Rural procession for Easter” completed in 1861 received loud scandalous fame. In an effort to show the disgust of peasant existence in the post-reform village, Perov deliberately exaggerates: an emphatically dreary landscape (gloomy sky, bare gnarled tree, mud, puddles), grotesque characters - everything should have worked to reveal the author's intention. This picture is typical for Russian painting of the 1860s. For this generation of Russian artists, the most important thing was to give a social assessment of the scene depicted, therefore, as a rule, a deep and multifaceted characterization of individual characters receded into the background. The scandalousness of the "Rural Easter Procession" was so obvious that it was immediately removed from the permanent exhibition of the Society for the Encouragement of Artists (where it was first exhibited) and until 1905 it was forbidden to exhibit and / or reproduce. A similar, albeit significantly lesser, response was caused by Perov's next work - "Tea drinking in Mytishchi".
Perov spent about two years as a pensioner of the Academy abroad, however, without waiting for the end of the pensionership period, he returned to his homeland, because. thought the main task service to your people. This striving for the homeland is also a new feature characteristic of the beginning of the reign of Alexander II (both before and after, the artists, on the contrary, sought to stay longer in Europe, seeing this as the only opportunity for free creativity). After returning, he creates his best works: “Seeing the Dead Man” (1865), “Troika” (1866) and “The Last Tavern at the Outpost” (1868). Specific images in these paintings by Perov develop into broad generalizations of the typical features of Russian life.
In the early 1870s Perov created a number of portraits. For the most part, he created portraits of writers and artists, realizing the idea of P.M. Tretyakov about perpetuating the images of outstanding figures of Russian culture. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to name the portraits of A.N. Ostrovsky and F.M. Dostoevsky. In contrast to Perov's previous works, in the portraits, deep psychologism and insight into the essence of the personality and character of the depicted person come to the fore.
The evolution of Perov's work - from social satire ("Rural procession on Easter") to social drama ("Troika"), and then to the creation of positive images of cultural figures or people from the people; from a detailed narrative to an emotional artistic image - characteristic of the development of Russian painting of those years.
The heyday of Russian realistic art II half. 19th century is inextricably linked with the activities of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. The charter of the Association, approved in 1870, stated that its main goal was “to acquaint Russia with Russian art”. Exhibitions were held in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and then moved to other major cities. "Wandering" was a unique artistic and social phenomenon in scope and duration. It lasted over 50 years (until 1923), having held 48 exhibitions during this time. P.M. provided great assistance to the Wanderers. Tretyakov, who bought all their best works. Later, the terms “wanderer”, “wanderer” were often used to refer to the entire democratic direction in Russian realistic art of the 1870s and 1880s.
The Wanderers owe much of their program of activity to Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoy. The main place in his work was occupied by a portrait. His best works in this genre are a self-portrait (1867) and a portrait of L.N. Tolstoy (1873). Along with the portrait of Dostoevsky by Perov, the portrait of Tolstoy by Kramskoy is one of the pinnacles of Russian portraiture in the second half of the century. 19th century
deep opening inner world man, manifested in the portraits of Kramskoy, is also characteristic of his paintings. One of the most famous is “Christ in the Wilderness” based on the gospel story. The fight against temptation and overcoming weakness, the transition from painful thoughts to a readiness to act, to make self-sacrifice - all this is expressed in the guise of Christ.
The same moral and philosophical questions also worried Nikolai Nikolayevich Ge, whose work is one of the most complex and at the same time significant phenomena in Russian art of the second half. 19th century Ge was inspired by the idea of the moral perfection of man and humanity, the belief in the moral, educational power of art, characteristic of the sixties. He attached particular importance to work with gospel stories, in which he saw an absolute moral ideal. The painting “The Last Supper” (1863) shows a tragic clash between Christ, voluntarily dooming himself to suffering and death, and his disciple, Judas, betraying his teacher. The same theme was continued by the paintings “What is truth?” (1890) and “Golgotha” (1892, unfinished), written under the strong influence of L.N. Tolstoy, with whom Ge was friendly in those years.
N.N. Ge paid tribute to the historical genre. One of the best historical paintings of this period was his work “Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei in Peterhof”, which reveals the tragedy of the struggle between civic duty and personal feelings. Among the best portrait works of the artist, one should mention the portraits of A.I. Herzen, L.N. Tolstoy, self-portrait.
One of the characteristic phenomena of Russian genre painting of this period was the work of Vladimir Egorovich Makovsky, depicting the life of the most diverse layers of Russian society (“The collapse of the bank”, etc.). Best Picture artist - “On the Boulevard” (1886 - 87) tells about the hard life of peasants, cut off from their usual life and trapped in a city alien to them.
Nikolai Alexandrovich Yaroshenko was a staunch Wanderer who transferred the ideas of the revolutionary struggle to painting (“Stoker” (1878), “Prisoner” (1878), etc.). In the early 1880s. Yaroshenko created two canvases (“Student” and “Cursist”), in which he reflected typical images of raznochinny students who joined the ranks of the populist revolutionaries. The best of the portraits of Yaroshenko is considered to be the portrait of P.A. Strepetova (1884).
An innovator in the field of battle painting was Vasily Vasilyevich Vereshchagin. His paintings are not like the ceremonial battle canvases of court painters. The content of his paintings was the cruel truth of the war, the fate of its ordinary participants, the heroism and suffering of Russian soldiers. Widely known are the paintings of Turkestan (“Apotheosis of War”, “Triumph”, “Mortally Wounded”) and Balkan (“Before the attack. Near Plevna.”, “After the attack. Dressing station near Plevna.”, “Everything is calm on Shipka”, “ Shipka-Sheinovo. Skobelev under Shipka") series. The value of Vereshchagin is not limited to innovation in the field of battle painting. He was the first in Russian art to initiate the depiction of the life of the peoples of the East.
The pinnacle of the development of realistic art in the 70s - 80s. was the work of I.E. Repin and V.I. Surikov.
Ilya Efimovich Repin concentrated the main achievements of Russian painting of the period under review in his work. Repin's first work, which opens new page in the history of Russian realistic art, the painting “Barge haulers on the Volga” appeared. Abandoning the original (typical for the Wanderers) idea of directly opposing an elegant crowd of idle rich people to a ragged gang of barge haulers, Repin focused on revealing the image of each of the barge haulers.
80s were sometimes the heyday of Repin's work, and his painting "The Religious Procession in the Kursk Province" again (like "Barge haulers" in the 70s) became innovative. It is as if the whole of Russia, all its estates and classes, passes before the viewer. Each of the numerous figures is a generalized image and, at the same time, a specific human character, given in all its vitality. In the Procession of the Cross, the people are shown both as a mass engulfed in a single movement, approaching the viewer, and as a many-voiced choir, where each character, while retaining its unique individuality, is woven into a complex unique whole. The theme of revolutionary struggle also occupied a significant place in Repin's work. The paintings “The Arrest of the Propaganda”, “Refusal of Confession”, “They Didn't Wait” are dedicated to her.
Turning to history, Repin dwells on dramatic plots that reveal the struggle between human passions and social forces, somehow echoing the present. Thus, the plot of the painting “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan” was inspired by the events of 1881. Contemporaries perceived this painting as a protest against the despotism of the autocracy. Therefore, it was forbidden to be shown by K.P. Pobedonostsev. "Cossacks", on the contrary, sing the spirit of freedom, the people's Cossack freemen. There is not a single repetitive image in the picture, the most diverse characters are shown by a few bright features.
Vasily Ivanovich Surikov made a huge contribution to the development of not only Russian, but also world historical painting. He belonged to an old Cossack family that moved to Siberia from the Don in the 16th century. Surikov could observe ancient Russian customs and way of life from childhood, and these childhood impressions largely influenced his future work. He was attracted by critical epochs, plots that made it possible to reveal the depths of the human personality in extreme situations. In 1881, he created the painting “Morning of the Streltsy Execution”. Surikov depicts not the execution itself, but the last tense moments preceding it. The courageous expectation of death, the behavior of people in the last moments of earthly life - constitute the main content of this picture. In 1883, Surikov painted the painting "Menshikov in Berezov". The cold and dark coloring, the space-limiting composition reveal the dramatic collapse of the fate of a temporary worker, a “semi-powerful ruler” who was thrown into Siberian exile with his family.
The largest work of Surikov was "Boyar Morozova" (1887). In the process of working on this picture, he specially traveled to Italy in order to comprehend the laws of composition in monumental painting using the example of the works of the Renaissance masters. The moment is shown when the indomitable opponent of “Nikonianism” Morozova is being taken through the streets of Moscow into exile. She says goodbye to the people and admonishes them to fight. The heroism and tragedy of a single protest, the attitude towards the heroine of the people is the theme of this picture. Of the later works of Surikov, one can name “The Capture of a Snowy Town”, “The Conquest of Siberia by Yermak”, “Suvorov's Crossing the Alps”.
The historical theme, but not in the dramatic, but in the heroic and poetic aspect, sounds in the work of Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov. In his own words, he was a historian "in a somewhat fantastical way." He was especially attracted by epic and fairy tales. The plot of his first large painting “After the Battle of Igor Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsy” (1880) was inspired by “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”. He wanted to convey the poetry of the Russian epic, the beauty and grandeur of a military feat. Hence his desire for monumentality. This was manifested with particular force in the painting “Heroes” (1898), on which he worked intermittently for about 20 years (!). As in epics, the appearance and character of each of the heroes is unique and at the same time these are generalized artistic images folk heroes - strong, brave, fair, etc. If the “Bogatyrs” personify the heroic principle in the folk epic, then “Alyonushka” (1881) is a subtle lyric.
One of the best Russian landscape painters of the late 60s - early 70s. was Alexei Kondratievich Savrasov. His most famous paintings are “The Rooks Have Arrived” (1871) and “Country Road” (1873). Shown at the first exhibition of the Association of the Wanderers, the painting “The Rooks Have Arrived” marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of the Russian landscape. Savrasov managed to see and convey the lyricism of the most ordinary and unpretentious landscape. In subsequent years, Savrasov did not create anything equal to these two paintings. But as a teacher (he taught at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture), he had a significant impact on the further development of Russian landscape painting.
The traditions of the lyrical landscape were continued by Vasily Dmitrievich Polenov. It was the landscape that was the main direction in the artist's work. In "Moscow Courtyard" (1878), "Overgrown Pond" (1879) a special poetry of the quiet corners of Russian nature is conveyed. Like Savrasov, Polenov was a great teacher.
The best works of Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin characterize the epic trend in Russian landscape painting. His work reached full maturity by the end of the 1870s. His most characteristic works can be considered "Rye", "Pines, illuminated by the sun" and, finally, the most famous - "Morning in a Pine Forest".
Isaac Ilyich Levitan belonged to the younger generation of the Wanderers. The heyday of his work - the end of the 80s and 90s. In his work, he, as it were, synthesized two directions of Russian landscape painting - lyrical and epic. The power and at the same time sincerity of Russian nature are perfectly conveyed in his paintings. Almost every year he went to the Volga and this mighty and lyrical river of fat became a kind of symbol of his work (“After the rain. Ples.” (1889), “Fresh wind. Volga.” (1895). influence of the French Impressionists.
Sculpture
In the 1860s - 90s. Russian sculpture, especially monumental, could not be compared in terms of artistic achievements with the period of the “Golden Age”.
The decline of monumental sculpture, as well as monumental-decorative sculpture, was closely connected with the general artistic decline that had been experienced since the 1940s and 1950s. architecture, with the collapse of the synthesis of architecture and fine arts. The main achievements at this time took place in easel sculpture.
The most significant Russian sculptor II half. 19th century was Mark Matveyevich Antokolsky. During his studies at the Academy of Arts, he was friends with the young I.E. Repin. His work is characterized by a special attention to historical themes. In 1870, he completed the statue "Ivan the Terrible" in which he sought to convey all the inconsistency of the tsar's spiritual world, his strength and at the same time weakness, fatigue, cruelty and remorse. Soon (1872) he created a new significant work - the statue "Peter the Great" (dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of the emperor). The sculptor depicted Peter at the time of the Battle of Poltava - in the Transfiguration uniform, with a cocked hat in his hand. Fluttering hair and wind-blown folds of clothing reinforce the impression of excitement and heroism of the image. Subsequently, M.M. Antokolsky, on the basis of this sculptural image, created monuments to Peter for several cities of Russia (Arkhangelsk, Taganrog, etc.).
In the field of monumental sculpture, it is necessary to note the activities of two masters - Mikhail Osipovich Mikeshin and Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin. The first one became famous as the author of such famous works as the monument “The Millennium of Russia” in Novgorod (1862), the monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg (1873) and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kiev (1888). The second one is known primarily as the author of the monument to A.S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880) - one of the best monuments in the history of Russian sculpture.
Architecture
By the middle of the XIX century. the decline of architecture was clearly marked. Eclecticism is spreading - the use of elements of a wide variety of styles. Under the onslaught of capitalist expediency, ensemble construction is becoming a thing of the past. The high price of land plots in the prestigious districts of the city led to the fact that, in pursuit of profit, the new “masters of life” did not pay attention to such “trifles” as the architectural unity of style, historical surroundings, etc. During this period, many priceless architectural ensembles that had developed in the previous decades were (sometimes irretrievably) damaged.
And yet it is impossible not to notice some of the achievements of the architecture of the middle. - II floor. 19th century First of all, they are due to the progress of technology. There is a need for buildings of a new type - railway stations, huge retail premises (passages), apartment buildings, etc. New Construction Materials(eg steel structures, reinforced concrete, etc.) that give architects more room for creativity.
In the 1850s - 60s. the prevailing style in architecture was “retrospective stylization”, i.e. reproduction external forms one or the other architectural styles of the past. The virtuoso of this direction was Andrey Ivanovich Shtakenshneider, whose work mainly falls on the end of the reign of Nicholas. His earliest work was the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg. Here the author used elements of classicism. The Beloselsky-Belozersky Palace in the same St. Petersburg was remarkably stylized by Stackenschneider in the spirit of the Rastrelli baroque. Late representatives of the stylization trend include Konstantin Mikhailovich Bykovsky (Zoological Museum in Moscow (1896).
Since the 1870s, thanks to the rise of national self-consciousness under the influence of events in the Balkans and, in part, in connection with the emergence of populist ideas, a search began for some kind of national, original Russian style. Retrospectivism in “Western” forms is no longer satisfactory, nor is the official Russian-Byzantine style. A “Russian” (or, in Soviet terminology, pseudo-Russian) style emerges. An idea of the features of this style is given by such buildings as the Historical Museum (1875 - 1881, architect V.O. Sherwood), Upper Trading Rows (now GUM) (1889 - 1893, architect A.N. Pomerantsev ) and the Moscow City Duma (1890 - 1892, architect D.N. Chichagov). Of the St. Petersburg monuments of this direction, it is necessary to note the Church of the Resurrection of Christ (“The Savior on Blood”) (1883 - 1907, architects I.V. Makarov, A.A. Parland).
"Russian" style did not last long. At the end of the century, it was replaced by a completely unusual, innovative style - modern.
Music
The work of creating national Russian music, begun by M.I. Glinka, in the middle of the XIX century. was still far from finished. Italian artists continued to set the tone on the opera stages, and Russian music almost did not sound in the concert halls.
In 1862, a small group of composers rallied in St. Petersburg, setting out to continue the work of M.I. Glinka. Subsequently, this group was called the "Mighty Handful." Its organizer and theorist was Mily Alekseevich Balakirev. In 1866, after painstaking work, he published the Collection of Russian Folk Songs. The Mighty Handful included M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin.
In 1873 The Maid of Pskov was staged - the first opera by Nikolai Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908). She occupies a special place in his work. In terms of strength and depth of musical drama, The Maid of Pskov surpasses almost all of his other operas. In terms of fidelity and consistency in carrying out the national color, it became on a par with Glinka's operas. Folk song melodies permeate all the music of the “Pskovityanka”, with special force they sound in the second act, where the Pskov veche is depicted. Many other operas by Rimsky-Korsakov are based on fairy tales. Watercolor transparency distinguishes the music of “The Snow Maiden”, a sad fairy tale about spring and first love.
Musical drama occupied the main place in the work of Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky (1839-1881). He had a taste for music from the age of six. But the profession of a musician was considered unworthy of a nobleman. Mussorgsky was sent to the School of Guards Ensigns. However, he did not forget about music, took private lessons, and after meeting Dargomyzhsky and Balakirev, he retired and devoted himself to his beloved work. In 1869, he proposed to the Directorate of the Imperial Theaters the opera Boris Godunov (based on a drama by Pushkin). In 1874 it was staged at the St. Petersburg Mariinsky Theatre.
The performance was not successful. The audience was not ready for the perception of Russian musical drama. Critics showered ridicule on Mussorgsky's work, exaggerating its flaws and hushing up its virtues. The composer went into a prolonged depression associated with the non-recognition of his work, loneliness, and poverty. He died in a military hospital.
Mussorgsky left the musical drama Khovanshchina (from the era of the Streltsy riots) unfinished, Rimsky-Korsakov put Mussorgsky's manuscripts in order and, if possible, finalized his work. "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" still do not leave the opera stage in our country and abroad, being considered classics.
"Prince Igor", the only opera by Alexei Porfiryevich Borodin (1833-1887), was staged after his death. The opera is distinguished by the truthfulness and beauty of the national color, which is contrasted with the oriental (Polovtsian) color.
Borodin was a professor of chemistry, but he studied music in his few hours of leisure. All the more surprising is the ease with which he solved complex musical problems both in opera and in symphonies (critics called his Second Symphony “Bogatyrskaya”). Borodin strove for breadth and epic musical narrative.
The activity of the “Mighty Handful” is such a striking phenomenon in Russian culture that contemporaries spoke of the “musical revolution” of the 60s and 70s. Having coped with the task with brilliance, the “Mighty Handful” finally approved the Russian national principles in music.
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) was not part of the Mighty Handful. He gravitated toward pan-European musical forms, although in his music one can feel belonging to the Russian school. His opera "Eugene Onegin", written for a conservatory performance in Moscow, was soon staged in the theater, and then won world recognition. His symphonic poems (“Romeo and Juliet”, etc.) are magnificent. Of the symphonies, the last one stands out, the Sixth, written shortly before his death and imbued with a premonition of an impending tragedy. Tchaikovsky's ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker") have become world ballet classics. Tchaikovsky wrote more than a hundred romances, many other works.
Thus, the second half of the 19th century is the time of the final approval and consolidation of national forms and traditions in Russian art. It was most successful in music, less successful in architecture. At the same time, there is no need to talk about the closure of Russian art in a narrow national framework, about its isolation from the rest of the world. Russian culture (primarily literature and music) has received worldwide recognition. Russian culture has taken a place of honor in the family of European cultures.
The science
The social upsurge during the period of the abolition of serfdom created favorable conditions for the development of Russian science. In the eyes of the younger generation, the importance and attractiveness of scientific activity grew (an important role was played by the spread of nihilism, a prerequisite for which was higher education). Graduates of Russian universities began to travel more often for internships in European research centers, and contacts between Russian scientists and their foreign colleagues became more active.
Great strides have been made in mathematics and physics. Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev (1821-1894) made major discoveries in mathematical analysis, number theory, and probability theory. He laid the foundation for the Petersburg mathematical school. Many talented scientists came out of it, including Alexander Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857 - 1918). His discoveries laid the foundation for a number of important areas of mathematics.
Alexander Grigoryevich Stoletov (1839-1896) played an outstanding role in the development of physics. He owns a number of studies in the field of photoelectric phenomena, subsequently used in the creation of modern electronic technology.
The development of physical science determined the successes in electrical engineering. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp (“Yablochkov's candle”) and was the first to carry out the transformation of alternating current. A.N. Lodygin invented a more advanced incandescent lamp.
The discovery of world significance was the invention of the radiotelegraph. Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859-1905) in 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Chemical Society, he made a presentation on the use of electromagnetic waves for signal transmission. The device he demonstrated, the "lightning detector", was essentially the world's first receiving radio station. In subsequent years, he created more advanced devices, but his attempts to introduce radio communications in the fleet were not very successful.
Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky (1825 - 1890) devoted his life to the creation of an aircraft heavier than air. He studied the flight of birds, made models, and in 1881 began building an aircraft with two steam engines with a capacity of 20 and 10 hp. With. There are no official documents on the testing of this aircraft. Apparently, the attempt ended unsuccessfully. However, the inventor came close to solving the problem, and his name is rightfully inscribed in the history of aviation.
60 - 70s of the XIX century. called the "golden age" of Russian chemistry. Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828 - 1886) developed a theory of chemical structure, the main provisions of which have not lost their significance to our time.
In the second half of the XIX century. the great chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1634-1907) made his discoveries. The greatest merit of Mendeleev was the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements. On its basis, Mendeleev predicted the existence of many then unknown elements. Mendeleev's book Fundamentals of Chemistry has been translated into almost all European languages.
DI. Mendeleev thought a lot about the fate of Russia. He associated its entry onto the path of economic and cultural upsurge with the wide and rational use of natural resources, with the development of the creative forces of the people, and the spread of education and science.
Using the achievements of chemistry and biology, Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev (1846 - 1903) laid the foundation for modern soil science. He revealed the complex and lengthy process of the origin of soils. The monograph “Russian Chernozem” brought world fame to Dokuchaev. Dokuchaev's ideas influenced the development of forestry, melioration, hydrogeology and other sciences.
Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1915) became an outstanding Russian naturalist, the founder of the Russian physiological school. Of outstanding importance was his course of lectures “On Animal Electricity” (that is, on bioelectricity). In the future, he dealt with the problems of the human psyche. His works “Reflexes of the brain” and “Psychological studies” are widely known.
The activities of another world-famous Russian biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916), concentrated in the field of microbiology, bacteriology, and medicine. In 1887, Mechnikov, at the invitation of Louis Pasteur, moved to Paris and headed one of the laboratories of the Pasteur Institute. Until the end of his days, he did not break ties with Russia, corresponded with Sechenov, Mendeleev, and other Russian scientists, repeatedly visited his homeland, helped Russian trainees at the famous institute.
Professional historians have long been dissatisfied with the multi-volume work of N.M. Karamzin "History of the Russian State". Many new sources on the history of Russia were revealed, and ideas about the historical process became more complicated. In 1851, the first volume of The History of Russia from Ancient Times was published, written by a young professor at Moscow University, Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820-1879). Since then, for many years, a new volume of his "History" has been published annually. The latter, 29, saw the light in 1880. Events were brought up to 1775. Comparing the historical development of Russia and other European countries, Solovyov found much in common in their destinies. He also noted the originality of the historical path of Russia. In his opinion, it consisted in its intermediate position between Europe and Asia, in the forced centuries-old struggle with the steppe nomads. Asia attacked first, Solovyov believed, and from about the 16th century. Russia, the advanced outpost of Europe in the East, went on the offensive.
A student of S.M. Solovyov was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911). He replaced his teacher at the Department of Russian History at Moscow University. In accordance with the spirit of the new time, Klyuchevsky showed great interest in socio-economic issues. He tried to trace in detail the process of the formation of serf relations in Russia, to reveal their essence from an economic and legal point of view. Klyuchevsky had an uncommon gift for a lively, figurative presentation. His "Course of Russian History", compiled on the basis of university lectures, still has a wide readership.
In the second half of the XIX century. Russian scientists have achieved significant success in various branches of knowledge. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the world's scientific centers.
The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half of the XIX century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.
The beginning of expeditions into the depths of Asia was laid by Petr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions. On his initiative, a multi-volume publication “Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland”.
The activities of other travelers were also connected with the Russian Geographical Society - P.A. Kropotkin and N.M. Przhevalsky.
PA Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayan Mountains and the Vitim Plateau. He later became a well-known anarchist revolutionary.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) made his first expedition to the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia. He several times crossed Mongolia, Northern China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died en route, at the start of his last expedition.
Overseas travels of Russian scientists in the second half of the 19th century. become more targeted. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the way of life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. put SP. Krasheninnikov, was continued by Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846 - 1888). He made his first travels to the Canary Islands and North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). The Russian scientist won the trust and love of the locals. Then he traveled through the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and again returned to the Maclay Coast. The descriptions of life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania, compiled by the scientist, were largely published only after his death.
The 19th century for Russian literature is rightfully called golden. He gave us a lot of talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and become a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century was replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.
In the 1940s, a "natural school" appeared - which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the "sitters" was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.
Since the second half of the 19th century, realism has been called critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two directions are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, shows the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature, they reflect the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic-serf system, the truth of life makes the works of that time popular.
Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century has significant differences from Western European. Many writers of that time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift towards revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular in Russia and abroad were novels and stories of the period of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws with which its development takes place. The heroes in the works talk about the imperfection of society, about conscience and justice.
One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works, he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and children”, “on the eve”, etc.)
A great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth was made by Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?
In the works of I. A. Goncharov, the morals of officials and landowners are shown.
Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility of the human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader, make him show sympathy for the “humiliated and offended”.
Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works brings to clean water officials and embezzlers, bribe takers and hypocrites who rob the people.
L. N. Tolstoy in his work showed the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.
The experience of A.P. Chekhov for the fate of Russian society was reflected in his works, giving the writer, whose talent makes one admire to this day.
The literature of the late 19th century has a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also enter the struggle for their ideals. The mood of the society of that time is also reflected in painting, introducing into the minds of people the idea of equality and good for the whole society.
The modern world is not complete without people who own the power and the right to be the first. For animals, the same. The lion is the king of beasts, the word is of course hackneyed, but still fair
